What is urine? Interpretation of general urine analysis indicators

Urine is a metabolic product formed in the kidneys as a result of filtration of the liquid part of the blood, as well as the processes of reabsorption and secretion of various analytes. It consists of 96% water, the remaining 4% comes from nitrogenous products of protein metabolism dissolved in it (urea, uric acid, creatinine, etc.), mineral salts and other substances.

General analysis urine in children and adults includes assessment of the physicochemical characteristics of urine and sediment microscopy. This study allows you to evaluate kidney function and other internal organs, as well as identify the inflammatory process in the urinary tract

Physicochemical studies of urine include assessment of the following indicators:

• color;
• urine clarity;
• specific gravity ( relative density);
• protein concentration;
• glucose concentration;
• bilirubin concentration;
• urobilinogen concentration;
• concentration of ketone bodies;
• nitrite concentration;
• hemoglobin concentration.

Microscopy of urinary sediment includes assessment of the following objects:

Assessment of the physical properties of urine, such as odor, color, turbidity, is carried out using the organoleptic method. The specific gravity of urine is measured using a urometer, a refractometer, or assessed using “dry chemistry” methods (test strips) - visually or on automatic urine analyzers.

Urine color

An adult's urine yellow color. Its shade can vary from light (almost colorless) to amber. The saturation of the yellow color of urine depends on the concentration of substances dissolved in it. With polyuria, urine has a lighter color; with a decrease in diuresis, it acquires a rich yellow tint. The color changes when taking medications (salicylates, etc.) or eating certain foods (beets, blueberries).

Pathologically changed color of urine occurs when:

• hematuria – a type of “meat slop”;
• bilirubinemia (beer color);
• hemoglobinuria or myoglobinuria (black);
• leukocyturia (milky white color).

Urine clarity

Normally, freshly collected urine is completely clear. Turbidity of urine is due to the presence in it of a large number of cellular formations, salts, mucus, bacteria, and fat.

Urine smell

Normally, the smell of urine is not strong. When urine decomposes by bacteria in the air or inside the bladder, for example in the case of cystitis, an ammonia odor appears. Rotted urine that contains protein, blood, or pus, such as from bladder cancer, causes the urine to smell like rotten meat. If there are ketone bodies in the urine, the urine has a fruity odor, reminiscent of the smell of rotting apples.

Urine reaction

The kidneys excrete “unnecessary” substances from the body and retain necessary substances to ensure the exchange of water, electrolytes, glucose, amino acids and maintain acid-base balance. The reaction of urine - pH - largely determines the effectiveness and characteristics of these mechanisms. Normally, the urine reaction is slightly acidic (pH 5.0–7.0). It depends on many factors: age, diet, body temperature, physical activity, kidney condition, etc. The lowest pH values ​​are in the morning on an empty stomach, the highest are after meals. When eating mainly meat foods, the reaction is more acidic, when eating plant foods, the reaction is alkaline. When standing for a long time, urine decomposes, ammonia is released and the pH shifts to the alkaline side.

An alkaline urine reaction is characteristic of chronic urinary tract infection and is also observed with diarrhea and vomiting.

The acidity of urine increases in feverish conditions, diabetes mellitus, tuberculosis of the kidneys or bladder, and renal failure.

Specific gravity (relative density) of urine

Relative density reflects the functional ability of the kidneys to concentrate and dilute urine. Normally functioning kidneys are characterized by wide fluctuations in the specific gravity of urine during the day, which is associated with periodic intake of food, water and fluid loss from the body. The kidneys under various conditions can excrete urine with a relative density of 1.001 to 1.040 g/ml.

There are:

• hyposthenuria (fluctuations in the specific gravity of urine less than 1.010 g/ml);
• isosthenuria (the appearance of a monotonous specific gravity of urine corresponding to that of primary urine (1.010 g/ml);
• hypersthenuria (high specific gravity values).

The maximum upper limit of the specific gravity of urine in healthy people is 1.028 g/ml, in children – 1.025 g/ml. The minimum lower limit for urine specific gravity is 1.003–1.004 g/ml.

For rate chemical composition currently, as a rule, diagnostic test strips (the “dry chemistry” method) produced by different manufacturers are used. The chemical methods used in test strips are based on color reactions that produce a change in the color of the test area of ​​the strip at different concentrations of the analyte. Discoloration is determined visually or by reflectance photometry using semi-automated or fully automated urine analyzers, and the results are assessed qualitatively or semi-quantitatively. If a pathological result is detected, the study can be repeated using chemical methods.

Protein

Protein is normally absent in urine or present in concentrations undetectable by conventional methods (traces). Several types of proteinuria (the appearance of protein in the urine) are identified:

• physiological (orthostatic, after increased physical activity, hypothermia);
• glomerular (glomerulonephritis, the action of infectious and allergic factors, hypertension, cardiac decompensation);
• tubular (amyloidosis, acute tubular necrosis, interstitial nephritis, Fanconi syndrome).
• prerenal (myeloma, muscle tissue necrosis, erythrocyte hemolysis);
• postrenal (for cystitis, urethritis, colpitis).

Glucose

Normally, there is no glucose in the urine. The appearance of glucose in the urine can have several reasons:

• physiological (stress, intake of increased amounts of carbohydrates);
• extrarenal ( diabetes, pancreatitis, diffuse liver damage, pancreatic cancer, hyperthyroidism, Itsenko-Cushing's disease, traumatic brain injury, stroke);
• renal (renal diabetes, chronic nephritis, acute renal failure, pregnancy, phosphorus poisoning, certain medications).

Bilirubin

Bilirubin is normally absent in urine. Bilirubinuria is detected in parenchymal liver lesions (hepatitis), obstructive jaundice, cirrhosis, cholestasis, as a result of the action of toxic substances.

Urobilingen

Normal urine contains low concentrations (traces) of urobilinogen. Its level increases sharply with hemolytic jaundice, as well as with toxic and inflammatory lesions of the liver, intestinal diseases (enteritis, constipation).

Ketone bodies

Ketone bodies include acetone, acetoacetic and beta-hydroxybutyric acids. An increase in the excretion of ketones in the urine (ketonuria) occurs when carbohydrate, lipid or protein metabolism is disturbed.

Nitrites

There are no nitrites in normal urine. In urine, they are formed from nitrates of food origin under the influence of bacteria, if the urine was in the bladder for at least 4 hours. The detection of nitrites in properly stored urine samples indicates infection of the urinary tract.

Hemoglobin

Normally absent in urine. Hemoglobinuria - the result of intravascular hemolysis of red blood cells with the release of hemoglobin - is characterized by the release of red or dark brown urine, dysuria, and often lower back pain. With hemoglobinuria, there are no red blood cells in the urine sediment.

Microscopy of urine sediment

Urine sediment is divided into organized (elements of organic origin - red blood cells, leukocytes, epithelial cells, casts, etc.) and unorganized (crystals and amorphous salts).

Research methods

The study is carried out visually in the native preparation using a microscope. In addition to visual microscopic examination, research using automatic and semi-automatic analyzers is used.

Red blood cells

During the day, 2 million red blood cells are excreted in the urine, which, when examining urine sediment, is normally 0–3 red blood cells per field of view for women and 0–1 red blood cell per field of view for men. Hematuria is an increase in red blood cells in the urine above the specified values. There are macrohematuria (the color of urine is changed) and microhematuria (the color of urine is not changed, red blood cells are detected only by microscopy).

In urinary sediment, red blood cells can be unchanged (containing hemoglobin) and changed (deprived of hemoglobin, leached). Fresh, unchanged red blood cells are characteristic of urinary tract lesions (cystitis, urethritis, stone passage).

The appearance of leached red blood cells in the urine is of great diagnostic importance, because they are most often of renal origin and occur in glomerulonephritis, tuberculosis and other kidney diseases. To determine the source of hematuria, a three-glass sample is used. When bleeding from the urethra, hematuria is greatest in the first portion (unchanged red blood cells), from the bladder - in the last portion (unchanged red blood cells). With other sources of bleeding, red blood cells are distributed evenly in all three portions (leached red blood cells).

Leukocytes

Leukocytes in the urine of a healthy person are contained in large quantities. The norm for men is 0–3, for women and children 0–6 leukocytes per field of view.

An increase in the number of leukocytes in the urine (leukocyturia, pyuria) in combination with bacteriuria and the presence of clinical symptoms indicates inflammation of an infectious nature in the kidneys or urinary tract.

Epithelial cells

Epithelial cells are almost always found in urinary sediment. Normally, a urine test shows no more than 10 epithelial cells per field of view.

Epithelial cells have different origins:

• squamous epithelial cells enter the urine from the vagina, urethra, their presence has no special diagnostic significance;
• transitional epithelial cells line the mucous membrane of the bladder, ureters, pelvis, and large ducts of the prostate gland. The appearance of a large number of such epithelial cells in the urine can be observed with urolithiasis, neoplasms of the urinary tract and inflammation of the bladder, ureters, pelvis, large ducts of the prostate gland;
• renal epithelial cells are detected in cases of damage to the renal parenchyma, intoxication, fever, infectious diseases, circulatory disorders.

Cylinders

The cylinder is a protein that is coagulated in the lumen of the renal tubules and includes in its matrix any contents of the lumen of the tubules. The cylinders take the shape of the tubules themselves (cylindrical cast). Normally, there are no casts in a urine sample taken for general analysis. The appearance of casts (cylindruria) is a symptom of kidney damage.

Cylinders are distinguished:

• hyaline (with overlay of erythrocytes, leukocytes, renal epithelial cells, amorphous granular masses);
• granular;
• waxy;
• pigmented;
• epithelial;
• erythrocyte;
• leukocyte;
• fatty.

Unorganized sediment

The main component of unorganized urine sediment is salts in the form of crystals or amorphous masses. The nature of the salts depends on the pH of the urine and other properties of the urine. For example, with an acidic reaction of urine, uric acid, urates, oxalates are detected, with an alkaline reaction of urine - calcium, phosphates, ammonium urate. Disorganized sediment does not have any particular diagnostic significance; one can indirectly judge the patient’s propensity for urolithiasis. With a number pathological conditions Crystals of amino acids, fatty acids, cholesterol, bilirubin, hematoidin, hemosiderin, etc. may appear in the urine.

The appearance of leucine and tyrosine in the urine indicates a severe metabolic disorder, phosphorus poisoning, destructive liver disease, pernicious anemia, leukemia.

Cystine is a congenital disorder of cystine metabolism - cystinosis, liver cirrhosis, viral hepatitis, hepatic coma, Wilson's disease (congenital defect of copper metabolism).

Xanthine – xanthinuria is caused by the absence of xanthine oxidase.

Bacteria

Normally, urine in the bladder is sterile. When urinating, germs from the lower urethra enter it.

The appearance of bacteria and leukocytes in a general urine analysis against the background of symptoms (dysuria or fever) indicates a clinically manifested urinary infection.

The presence of bacteria in the urine (even in combination with leukocytes) in the absence of complaints is regarded as asymptomatic bacteriuria. Asymptomatic bacteriuria increases the risk of infection urinary tract, especially during pregnancy.

Yeast mushrooms

The detection of fungi of the genus Candida indicates candidiasis, which most often occurs as a result of irrational antibiotic therapy, the use of immunosuppressants, and cytostatics.

In the urine sediment, blood schistosome eggs (Schistosoma hematobium), elements of the echinococcal bladder (hooks, scolex, brood capsules, fragments of the bladder shell), migrating larvae of intestinal eels (strongylides), washed off with urine from the perineum of the oncosphere of taeniids, pinworm eggs (Enterobius vermicularis) can be found ) and pathogenic protozoa - Trichomonas (Trichomonas urogenitalis), amoebas (Entamoeba histolitika - vegetative forms).

Conditions for sample collection and storage

For general analysis, morning urine is collected. Urine collection is carried out after thorough toileting of the external genitalia without the use of antiseptics. For the study, freshly collected urine is used, stored until analysis for no more than four hours. Samples are stable at a temperature of 2–8 °C for no more than 2 days. The use of preservatives is undesirable. Before the study, the urine is thoroughly mixed.

Reading time: 11 min.

The kidneys are a paired organ with a fine structure, so the slightest change in the normal course of any internal processes leads to noticeable deviations in the performance of the urinary system.

Pathologies of the kidneys, urinary tract and some other organs can be determined by a general urine test (abbreviated to OAM on medical forms). It is also called clinical.

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  1. Why is this test prescribed?

  Urine is a biological fluid in which the final waste products of the body are released from the human body.

  It is conventionally divided into primary (formed by filtration in the glomeruli from blood plasma) and secondary (formed by reabsorption of water, necessary metabolites and other solutes in the renal tubules).

  Disruption of this system entails characteristic changes in the normal parameters of TAM. Thus, the analysis can show:

  1. 1 Deviations in metabolism;
  2. 2 Signs of urinary tract infection;
  3. 3 Effectiveness of treatment and diet;
  4. 4 Dynamics of recovery.

  A person can contact a laboratory for a urine test on his own initiative if he notices sudden changes in his urine. physical characteristics. But more often the patient receives a referral from a specialist at the clinic, who then deciphers the results obtained.

  OAM is included in the list of basic studies during preventive examinations of the population, medical examination, it is prescribed when applying for medical care to a specialist, during pregnancy, during hospitalization and in some other cases.

  A general urine test consists of a sequential study of:

  1. 1 Physical characteristics of the sample;
  2. 2 Chemical composition;
  3. 3 Microscopic examination of sediment.

  2. Patient preparation

  Before submitting the material for general (clinical) analysis, consult your doctor about the possible temporary cessation of taking certain pharmaceutical drugs. For example, diuretics should be stopped 48 hours before sample collection.

  Women should remember that menstruation usually skews the results. For testing, it is better to choose a time before your period or two days after the end of the discharge.

  The day before collecting biomaterial, avoid foods with a high content of pigments, alcohol, fatty, smoked foods, sex, and excessive physical and psycho-emotional stress. All this can distort the OAM results.

  For analysis, a morning urine sample is collected, optimally its middle part. Before collection, the patient must toilet the external genitalia (bath, shower, wet wipes).

  After the start of urination, it is better to flush the first portion into the toilet, collect the middle portion in a clean, sterile container (optimally in a sterile pharmaceutical container). The minimum volume of urine required for testing is 50 ml. There is a mark on the medicine cup to the level at which it is advisable to fill the container.

  In young children, it is often difficult to collect urine for analysis. Therefore, when collecting, you can use small tricks:

  1. 1 Buy special soft polyethylene containers with a sticky edge at the pharmacy. Not all children like this procedure, but for some it is acceptable.
  2. 2 Before picking up, take the baby to the bathroom and turn on the water. A child up to one year old can be breastfed beforehand, and an older baby can be given water to drink. Urination in babies is tied to feeding, so the task can be made easier.
  3. 3 Some children pee several times with intervals between peeings of 10-15 minutes. To collect material from such babies, it is better to prepare several containers so that it is possible to collect droplets in different dishes without getting it dirty during manipulation.
  4. 4 Before the procedure, you can do a soft, stroking massage in the lower abdomen, in the bladder area.

  3. What should not be done when collecting urine?

  When collecting material for clinical urine analysis, it is not recommended:

  1. 1 Use untreated dishes, contents of a potty, diaper, diaper, plastic bag. This analysis is called “dirty”; it is not suitable for assessing the condition of the urinary system.
  2. 2 Use for analysis stale urine that has stood for more than 3 hours or has been in the refrigerator without a special preservative.
  3. 3 Collect material for OAM after defecation, during menstruation or after sexual intercourse.
  4. 4 Collect material for research during acute inflammatory diseases of the reproductive system, skin around the urethra and vagina (you must warn the doctor about this in advance). It will not be possible to collect such an analysis purely.
  5. 5 Do not use a urinary catheter unless there is an urgent need for it (prostate cancer, prostate adenoma, a bedridden seriously ill patient and other situations that are specified by the attending physician). When placing a catheter at home, there is a high risk of secondary infection.

  The table below presents the main indicators, their standards and interpretation. Clinical urine analysis in women is practically no different from that in men, with the exception of some parameters. These small nuances are noted in the table.

  Index	Decoding	Norm
  BLd	Red blood cells	2-3 in the field of view in women (abbreviated as p/z) / Single in men
  LEU	Leukocytes	3-6 in p/z for women / Up to 3 - for men
  Hb	Hemoglobin	Absent (sometimes they write the abbreviation neg - negative)
  BIL	Bilirubin	Absent (neg)
  UBG	Urobilinogen	5-10 mg/l
  PRO	Protein	Absent or up to 0.03 g/l
  NIT	Nitrites	Absent
  G.L.U.	Glucose	Absent
  KET	Ketone bodies	Absent
  pH	Acidity	5-6
  S.G.	Density	1012-1025
  COLOR	Color	Light yellow

  Table 1 - Indicators assessed in clinical urine analysis

  4. Physical properties

  4.1.

  When assessing the total amount of urine excreted, it is necessary to take into account the possible dietary characteristics of each patient. In an adult who follows a normal diet, daily diuresis ranges from 800 to 1500 ml.

  Diuresis directly depends on the volume of fluid drunk. Typically, 60-80% of what you consume per day is excreted from the body. The normal ratio of daytime to nighttime diuresis is 3:1 or 4:1.

  A condition characterized by increased urine output (more than 2000 ml per day) is called polyuria.

  A similar phenomenon is observed normally:

  1. 1 If you have drunk a lot over the past day;
  2. 2 With nervous excitement or overexertion.

  Polyuria can be observed in the following pathological conditions:

  1. 1 Kidney diseases (CKD, stage of resolution of acute renal failure);
  2. 2 Relief of edema, for example, against the background of diuretics;
  3. 3 Diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus;
  4. 4 Nephropathies (amyloidosis, myeloma, sarcoidosis);
  5. 5 Taking certain medications.

  The reverse condition is called oliguria. With oliguria, less than 500 ml of urine is excreted per day.

  Physiologically it can occur with:

  1. 1 Reduce fluid intake;
  2. 2 Loss of fluid through sweat in the heat;
  3. 3 Significant physical activity.

  It is noted in the following pathologies:

  1. 1 Cardiac decompensation;
  2. 2 Poisoning;
  3. 3 Excessive loss of water from the body (for example, during profuse diarrhea, vomiting);
  4. 4 Burns;
  5. 5 Shock conditions;
  6. 6 Fever of any origin;
  7. 7 Kidney damage of infectious, autoimmune and toxic origin.

  Anuria is a condition in which urine production stops completely. Anuria is typical for:

  1. 1 Initial stage of acute renal failure;
  2. 2 Acute blood loss;
  3. 3 Uncontrollable vomiting;
  4. 4 Stones in the urinary tract with obstruction of the lumen;
  5. 5 Oncological diseases accompanied by obstruction and compression of the ureters.

  Nocturia is a condition in which nocturnal diuresis significantly prevails over daytime. Nocturia is typical for:

  1. 1 Diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus;
  2. 2 Many kidney diseases;

  4.2.

  Urinary frequency

  In addition to the daily amount of urine, pay attention to the frequency of urination. Normally, this process is performed by a person 4-5 times during the day. Pollakiuria is characterized by frequent trips to the toilet.

  1. Observed when:
  2. 1 Drink plenty of liquid;

  2 Urinary infections.

  1. Olakiuria is the opposite condition to that described above. Characteristic for:
  2. 1 Low intake of fluid into the body;

  2 Neuro-reflex disorders.

  Dysuria is a urination disorder that combines symptoms such as changes in urine volume, frequency and pain. She usually accompanies.

  4.3.

  Color

  Is a direct reflection of concentration. In a healthy person, deviations in color from straw yellow to amber are allowed. The color of urine is also influenced by special substances, the basis of which are blood pigments. A dark yellow color is observed when the amount of coloring substances dissolved in it significantly exceeds the norm.

  1. Characteristic of such conditions:
  2. 1 Edema;
  3. 4 Burns;
  4. 2 Vomiting;
  5. 4 Stagnant kidney;
  1. 5 Diarrhea.
  2. 1 Diabetes mellitus;

  2 Diabetes insipidus.

  The dark brown color is explained by an increase in the level of urobilinogen. It is a diagnostic criterion for hemolytic anemia. Urine may turn dark brown when taking sulfonamides.

  1. Dark, practical black color can indicate several conditions:
  2. 1 Alkaptonuria (due to homogentisic acid);
  3. 2 Acute hemolytic kidney;

  3 Melanosarcoma (obtains this shade due to the presence of melanin). Urine turns red if it contains fresh blood or red pigments.

  1. This is possible with:
  2. 1 Kidney infarction;
  3. 2 Renal failure;
  4. 3 Damage and trauma to the urinary tract;

  4 Taking certain medications (for example, rifampicin, adriamycin, phenytoin).

  The appearance of “meat slop” is explained by the presence of altered blood, which is characteristic of acute glomerulonephritis.

  A greenish-brown tint (compared to the color of beer) appears if bilirubin and urobilinogen enter the urine. This deviation from the norm often indicates parenchymal jaundice.

  If the shade is rather greenish-yellow, which may indicate the presence of bilirubin alone, and is considered a symptom of obstructive jaundice.

  4.4.

  Transparency

  Normally, urine is clear. However, in the presence of pathological components and impurities (proteins, leukocytes, erythrocytes, epithelium, bacteria, salts), it can be cloudy, cloudy and milky.

  Several manipulations can be carried out in advance to narrow the range of possible substances that make up the sediment to certain salts.

  For more accurate data, microscopy of the sediment is performed.

  4.5.

  Smell

  The smell of urine is usually specific and not strong. An ammonia odor may appear if there is bacterial contamination of the sample. A fruity smell (of rotting apples) is considered an indicator of the presence of ketone bodies.

  4.6.

  Relative density (SG)

  This indicator is considered very important, since it is used to judge the concentration function of the kidneys and its ability to dilute.

  The measurement is carried out using a specially designed device - a urometer. During the study, attention is primarily paid to the content of electrolytes and urea, and not to substances with high molecular weight (proteins, glucose, etc.). Normally, the relative density of the morning urine portion is determined in the range from 1.012 to 1.025. During the day it can fluctuate between 1001 - 1040, therefore, if a patient is suspected of having a decrease in the concentrating ability of the kidneys, it is usually prescribed.

  1. Hypersthenuria – an indicator higher than normal
  2. . Its cause may be:
  3. 1 Toxicosis of pregnant women;
  4. 2 Progressive edema;
  5. 3 Nephrotic syndrome;

  4 Diabetes mellitus; 5 Use of radiopaque agents.

  1. Hyposthenuria - decreased specific gravity
  2. . Observed in the following conditions:
  3. 1 Malignant hypertension;
  4. 2 Chronic renal failure;

  3 Diabetes insipidus;

  4 Damage to the kidney tubules.

  Isosthenuria is a condition in which the density of urine is equal to the density of blood plasma (within 1010-1011).

  5. Chemical properties

  This is the second group of urine indicators that characterize the patient’s health status.<5) может быть следствием:

  1. 5.1.
  2. Medium reaction (pH)
  3. Normally, urine pH ranges between 5-7. Acid reaction (pH
  4. 1 Increased consumption of meat products;
  5. 2 Metabolic or respiratory acidosis (as a consequence of various pathological processes), coma;

  3 Acute glomerulonephritis;

  1. 4 Gout;
  2. 5 Hypokalemia.
  3. An alkaline reaction (pH>7) occurs when:
  4. 1 Vegetable diet;
  5. 2 Chronic renal failure;

  3 Metabolic or gas alkalosis;

  4 Hyperkalemia; 5 Active inflammatory processes in the urinary system. 5.2.

  1. Protein Determination (PRO)
  2. 2 Renal - one that is a consequence of damage to the glomerular filter or dysfunction of the renal tubules. The diagnostic criterion for the severity of the pathological process is selectivity - the greater the number of large protein molecules found in secondary urine, the more serious the situation.
  3. 3 Postrenal proteinuria is a manifestation of inflammatory processes in the reproductive system and surrounding tissues (vulvovaginitis, balanitis, and so on).
  4. 4 Proteinuria can also be physiological, for example, during emotional overload, exposure to cold or sun, in children in a standing position, during long walking or running.

  5.3.

  Determination of glucose (GLU) Normally, this substance cannot be detected in urine due to its low content. Glucosuria is the name given to a condition in which glucose levels exceed 0.8 mmol/l

  . This occurs when the so-called renal glucose threshold is exceeded. That is, when its concentration in the blood exceeds 9.9 mmol/l, it freely passes the barrier and enters the urine.

  1. There are the following types of glucosuria:
  2. 1 Alimentary (large amounts come from food);
  3. 2 Emotional;

  3 Medicinal.

  1. Pathological glucosuria is usually divided into renal (manifests itself in various kidney diseases) and extrarenal, which is considered a consequence of the following diseases:
  2. 1 Diabetes mellitus;
  3. 2 Thyrotoxicosis;
  4. 3 Pheochromocytomas;
  5. 4 Acute pancreatitis and other diseases of the pancreas;
  6. 5 Itsenko-Cushing's disease;
  7. 6 Cirrhosis of the liver;

  7 Poisoning.

  5.4. Determination of hemoglobin (Hb)

  1. It is believed that hemoglobin is found in a portion of urine during the rapid breakdown (hemolysis) of red blood cells. Such a process may be infectious, immunological or genetic in nature.
  2. Most often, hemoglobinuria is detected with:
  3. 1 Hemolytic anemia;
  4. 2 Transfusion of incompatible blood;
  5. 3 Internal injuries (crash syndrome);

  4 Severe poisoning;

  5 Direct damage to kidney tissue.

  Hemoglobinuria is dangerous because it is an impetus for the development of acute renal failure.

  1. Pathological glucosuria is usually divided into renal (manifests itself in various kidney diseases) and extrarenal, which is considered a consequence of the following diseases:
  2. 5.5.
  3. Determination of ketone bodies (KET)
  4. Ketonuria is a special indicator of urine analysis, which reflects the failure of metabolic processes occurring in the body. In this case, the following substances are detected: acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric, acetoacetic acids. Ketonuria occurs against the background of:
  5. 2 Carbohydrate starvation, diets;
  6. 3 Severe toxicosis (more often in children);

  4 Dysentery;

  Bilirubinuria is a pathological condition in which unchanged bilirubin is detected in the urine. When the mechanisms that utilize bilirubin fail, the kidneys take on part of the work. Bilirubinuria is typical of many liver diseases:

  1. 1 Cirrhosis;
  2. 2 Hepatitis;
  3. 3 Jaundice (parenchymal and mechanical);
  4. 4 Gallstone disease.

  5.7.

  Determination of urobilin bodies (UBG)

  Urobilinuria occurs when the liver does not function properly. However, intestinal pathology (where this substance is formed) and processes leading to the breakdown of red blood cells also contribute to the appearance of urobilinogen in the urine.

  1. A high content of urobilinogen bodies in the sample (UBG in the analysis form) is detected when:
  2. 1 Hepatitis;
  3. It is believed that hemoglobin is found in a portion of urine during the rapid breakdown (hemolysis) of red blood cells. Such a process may be infectious, immunological or genetic in nature.
  4. 2 Sepsis;
  5. 4 Cirrhosis;

  5 Intestinal diseases (inflammation, obstruction).

  6. Microscopic examination of sediment

  Microscopic examination of organized and unorganized urine sediment is of great importance in diagnosis. For this purpose, the laboratory technician lets the resulting sample sit for about two hours, then centrifuges it, drains the liquid, and examines a drop of sediment under a microscope.

  At low magnification, the cylinders within the field of view are counted, and at high magnification, leukocytes, erythrocytes and other cellular elements are counted.

  Counting the number of cellular elements in a material greatly facilitates the use of Goryaev’s camera.

  6.1.

  Red blood cells (BLD)

  

  Normally there are, but their number is limited to one cell in the field of view in men and up to three in women).

  – a condition in which more red blood cells are found in the urine. There are macrohematuria (the presence of blood clots can be determined with the naked eye) and microhematuria (the presence of red blood cells can only be detected using a microscope).

  

  Figure 1 - Changed erythrocytes in urine under a microscope, native preparation. Source Masaryk University (https://is.muni.cz/do/rect/el/estud/lf/js15/mikroskop/web/pages/zajimave-nalezy_en.html)

  In addition, glomerular (renal) hematuria is distinguished, which manifests itself in kidney diseases of various origins, medicinal and toxic damage to the renal tissue, and non-glomerular, which is associated with the inflammatory process, injuries and oncological diseases.

  Figure 2 - Unchanged erythrocytes (native preparation, red arrow indicates erythrocyte and leukocyte). Source Masaryk University

  An increase in the level of white blood cells in the urine is called leukocyturia. This always indicates inflammatory processes in the kidneys or urinary tract, such as:

  1. 2 Glomerulonephritis;
  2. 3 Kidney tuberculosis;
  3. 5 Urethritis;
  4. 6 Fever.

  If among all the cells there are noticeably more eosinophils, then they talk about the allergic genesis of the disease, if there are lymphocytes - about the immunological one.

  

  Figure 3 - Leukocytes in urine under a microscope

  6.3.

  Epithelium Normally, microscopy reveals up to 5-6 cells.

  1. However, the elements should be distinguished from each other, since they reflect different clinical manifestations:
  2. 1 Flat epithelium enters the material from the external genitalia. Often observed with urethritis in men, in poorly collected samples in women.
  3. 2 Transitional epithelium is part of the mucous membrane of the urinary tract. Found in cystitis, neoplasms, pyelitis.

  3 Renal epithelium, present in large quantities in TAM, indicates the following conditions: acute and chronic kidney damage, intoxication, fever, infection.

  6.4.

  1. Cylinders
     • These are protein or cellular elements originating from the tubular epithelium.
     • 1 Hyaline (protein) appear when:
     • dehydration of the body;
     • nephropathy in pregnant women;
  2. fevers;
     • poisoning with salts of heavy metals.
     • 2 Waxy (protein) speaks of:
  3. nephrotic syndrome;

  amyloidosis.

  3 Cellular casts can indicate problems of a very wide etiology and are a direct indication of more detailed analyzes. 6.5..Slime

  1. 5 Urethritis;
  2. Normally found in
  3. a small amount
  G.L.U.GlucoseAbsent KETKetone bodiesAbsent pHAcidity5-6 S.G.Density1012-1025 COLORColorLight yellow

At higher levels, mucus may indicate the following diseases:

1. 4 Kidney stone disease;
2. 5 Incorrect sample collection.
3. Bibliography
4. 1 Kozinets G.I. Interpretation of blood and urine tests and their clinical significance / G.I. Kozinets. - M.: Triad X, 1998. – 100 p.;
5. 5 Morozova V.T. Urine examination: Textbook. allowance / V.T. Morozova, I.I. Mironova, R.L. Shartsinevskaya. – M.: RMAPO, 1996. – 84 p.

Clinical task on the topic of the article:

A 45-year-old man visited a nephrologist for examination regarding microhematuria. Microhematuria was first detected 6 months ago (the patient changed jobs and underwent a medical examination for health insurance), which was reported to him twice in the last six months by his attending physician.

Previous urine tests did not reveal any pathological changes. The patient has never reported gross hematuria (red-colored urine, blood in the urine), has not experienced any urinary tract symptoms, and currently feels in excellent shape.

There is no history of serious illnesses, no symptoms of visual or hearing impairment. There is no mention of kidney disease in relatives in the family history. According to the patient, he drinks about 200 grams of vodka a week and smokes 30 cigarettes a day.

Inspection data

The patient has no signs of being overweight. Pulse – 70 beats per minute, blood pressure – 145/100 mm Hg. Examination of the cardiovascular, respiratory, nervous systems and organs abdominal cavity did not reveal any violations.

Fundoscopy (examination of the fundus) revealed tortuous arteries and veins of the fundus, perpendicular branching of the retinal arteries.

Research results

Questions

1. 1 Most likely diagnosis.
2. 2 What further tests should be ordered?
3. 3 What recommendations should be given to the patient?
4. 4 How to interpret the results of a biochemical blood test?

Problem solving and patient management tactics

Microscopic hematuria can occur as a result of a wide range of pathologies (for example, prostate diseases, urolithiasis), but its combination with arterial hypertension, proteinuria (increased protein in the urine), impaired renal function (increased creatinine and urea levels) indicates the patient has chronic glomerulonephritis.

An increase in the level of GGTP in a biochemical analysis may indicate liver damage as a result of chronic alcohol consumption (here it is necessary to clarify the life history of this patient).

Most common reasons microhematuria:

1. 1 Chronic glomerulonephritis, including immunoglobulin A (Ig A) nephropathy;
2. 2 Thin basement membrane disease (benign hematuria);
3. 3 Alport syndrome.

Ig A nephropathy is the most common glomerulonephritis in developed countries, is characterized by diffuse mesangial deposits of IgA.

Patients often experience episodes of gross hematuria (red urine) in response to the development of inflammatory diseases of the upper respiratory tract.

In most cases, the triggering factor of the disease cannot be identified. There is often an association with Henoch-Schönlein purpura and other autoimmune diseases, alcoholic cirrhosis of the liver, infections, and oncology.

In this patient, immunoglobulin nephropathy may be combined with alcoholic liver disease, which requires clarification. 2 out of 10 patients with IgA nephropathy develop end-stage chronic renal failure within 20 years.

Thin basement membrane disease is a hereditary disease that is accompanied by the determination of red blood cells, protein in the urine (minimal proteinuria), normal indicators kidney function that does not deteriorate over time.

Electron microscopy reveals diffuse thinning of the glomerular basement membranes (normally the thickness of the basement membrane is 300 - 400 nm, while in patients with benign hematuria the thickness of the glomerular basement membranes is 150 - 225 nm).

Alport syndrome is a progressive hereditary disease (the gene is inherited on the X chromosome in a dominant manner, men are more often affected) of the glomeruli of the kidneys, which is associated with deafness and visual impairment.

This patient needs to undergo a kidney biopsy for histological verification and an accurate diagnosis.

Since the patient is over 40 years old, it is necessary to conduct a PSA test, transrectal digital examination (to exclude prostate cancer), and if bladder cancer is suspected, urine cytology, ultrasound, and cystoscopy of the bladder.

To assess the condition of the liver, it is necessary to perform an ultrasound examination and, if necessary, decide on a liver biopsy.

The patient should be advised to stop drinking alcohol and regularly monitor blood pressure. The patient should be regularly examined by a nephrologist, as he is at high risk for the progression of renal failure, with a high probability of undergoing hemodialysis and/or kidney transplantation.

The patient should be referred to a cardiologist for blood pressure profiling and antihypertensive therapy.

Moderately elevated creatinine levels indicate glomerular damage. Currently, there is no convincing evidence of the effectiveness of immunosuppressive therapy in patients with immunoglobulin (Ig A) nephropathy.

Key points

1. 1 Patients with isolated hematuria under 50 years of age should be referred to a nephrologist.
2. 2 Patients over 50 years of age are initially referred to a urologist to exclude pathologies of the bladder and prostate.
3. 3 Even a slight increase in plasma creatinine indicates significant impairment of renal function.
4. 4 Alcohol-induced liver damage is not accompanied by severe symptoms.

Deciphering a general urine test in adults requires the necessary qualifications, so doctors do not recommend interpreting the results on your own. This laboratory test It is highly informative and easy to carry out and is one of the most frequently prescribed.

Urine, or urine, is a biological fluid that is produced by the kidneys in the process of filtering the blood flowing through them. It consists of 95-96% water and 4-5% products of protein metabolism (creatinine, uric acid, urea), mineral salts and other substances.

A good urine test result does not always indicate the absence of pathology; it must be correlated with blood tests and the general condition of the patient.

The diagnostic value of a general urine test is explained by the following factors:

• collecting material for research is simple and does not cause discomfort to the patient;
• speed and technical simplicity of implementation;
• urine test indicators correlate with blood test indicators, complementing each other;
• a complete general urine test allows you to assess the functioning of many body systems;
• The results obtained in some cases allow the doctor to make a preliminary diagnosis.

Indications for prescribing a general urine test

A general urine test is prescribed to all adults and children during dispensary observation, it is also included in the complex of basic examination of patients with a variety of diseases. It is most informative for the following pathologies:

• inflammatory diseases of the kidneys and urinary tract;
• neoplasms of the genitourinary system;
• acute and chronic renal failure;
• diseases of the liver and biliary tract (hepatitis, cholangitis, cholelithiasis);
• poisoning with hemolytic poisons;
• condition after a streptococcal infection.

It is advisable that every healthy person take a urine test once a year, as it provides enough information about the state of the body and allows you to diagnose some diseases at a latent stage, in the absence of any symptoms.

How to prepare for research

A general urine test not only identifies possible diseases of the genitourinary system, but also determines the condition of many other systems, for example, the digestive and cardiovascular. However, in order for the parameters it determines to be reliable, it is necessary to prepare properly.

Deviation of certain indicators from the norm or, conversely, obtaining a normal result in the presence of clinical symptoms serves as a reason for an in-depth examination of the patient.

One day before the test, you must stop eating foods that can affect the composition of your urine. First of all, these are brightly colored products (beets, carrots, caramel, lemonade), marinades, smoked meats, and alcohol. In addition, you should stop taking any dietary supplements and vitamins, as well as diuretics (after consulting your doctor).

Ketone bodies

Appears in decompensated diabetes mellitus,

An increase in the number of transitional epithelial cells is associated with urolithiasis, tumors of the urinary tract, intoxication, acute inflammatory processes in the renal pelvis or bladder.

The appearance of renal epithelial cells in the urine is observed with circulatory failure, intoxication, and nephritis. Very large numbers of renal epithelial cells are present in the urine of patients with nephrotic necrosis caused by poisoning with dichloroethane, antifreeze, and sublimate.

In case of urgent need, a general urine test can be taken at any time of the day. If the result is required as soon as possible, then on the referral to the laboratory it is written in Latin “Cito!”, which means “urgent”.

Cylinders

What are cylinders? These are formations that are casts of the renal tubules and are formed by various components of urine coagulated in an acidic environment. Casts do not form in alkaline urine.

Depending on the composition, there are several types of cylinders:

• hyaline– appear in certain kidney diseases, heart failure and hyperthermia;
• grainy– a sign of kidney pathology (pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, diabetic nephropathy), viral infections, lead poisoning;
• wax– for amyloidosis, chronic renal failure, nephrotic syndrome;
• erythrocyte– characteristic of glomerulonephritis, renal vein thrombosis, renal infarction.

Bacteria

The appearance of bacteria in the urine (bacteriuria) is associated with an infectious inflammatory process in the organs of the genitourinary system or a violation of the rules for preparing and taking the test.

Fungi

Their detection indicates a fungal infection. They often appear in the urine of people who have received a long course of antibacterial therapy or who suffer from immunodeficiency of various origins.

Salts

The appearance of salts in the urine may be associated with disorders of mineral metabolism, inflammation in the pyelocaliceal system, urolithiasis, gout, as well as dietary habits.

Is it possible to decipher a urine test yourself?

At first glance, it may seem that reading the result of a general urine test is not difficult if you have a decoding of the main indicators at hand. However, in practice everything is much more complicated. It happens that existing deviations from the norm are not associated with pathology. For example, a decrease in the density of urine may be due to drinking a lot shortly before the test, and a change in the color of urine may be due to eating beetroot dishes or taking medications (Furadonin, Furazolidone, vitamins).

A decrease in the amount of urine is observed with dehydration, acute and chronic renal failure. With a large volume of urine, diabetes mellitus or diabetes insipidus can be suspected.

On the other hand, a good result of a urine test also does not always indicate the absence of pathology; it must be correlated with blood tests and the general condition of the patient. In this regard, it is impossible to make a diagnosis based only on the results of one study in most cases. As a rule, deviation of certain indicators from the norm or, conversely, obtaining a normal result in the presence of clinical symptoms serves as a reason for an in-depth examination of the patient. The diagnosis is made based on an assessment of the results of all studies taking into account the clinical picture.

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Features of deciphering a general urine test in adults, children and pregnant women

A general urine test is a clinical test necessary to make an accurate diagnosis. In laboratory conditions, the physicochemical parameters of this biological fluid are determined, and the sediment is diagnosed separately.

Disturbances in the functioning of the body are primarily manifested in the composition of urine. By noticing deviations from the norm in time, you can avoid severe forms of disease.

Features of urine collection

Submitting urine for analysis requires virtually no effort on the part of the person. The liquid must be collected immediately after sleep in a washed jar. The genital area must be washed before the procedure to prevent bacteria from entering.

For the most accurate results, you should not drink alcohol or diuretics the day before the urine test. Fresh fruits and vegetables can unduly change the color of the liquid. The medical restriction is that cystoscopy should be performed no later than a week before the test.

Women during menstrual cycle Do not allow menstrual blood to enter the urine.

The laboratory accepts a fixed volume of urine, the approximate norm is 50 ml. The collected test must be delivered to the clinic no later than 2 hours after collection.

• If you can’t get urine out within this period of time, you need to put the jar in the refrigerator. The analysis result can be obtained within the next day.

Interpretation of general urine analysis in adults, norms

Each indicator in the urine test result card either corresponds to the norm or indicates a specific disease. For laboratory diagnostics, not only the composition of the liquid is important, but also the color, consistency, and smell.

Table: general urine test norm and interpretation of results in adults

Below the table, all the analysis indicators and possible diseases indicated by a deviation from the norm (increase/decrease) are described in detail.

Let's look at each indicator separately.

Urine color

Decoding the urine test begins with assessing the color of the liquid. In adults, the norm is shades from light yellow to rich straw. Other color variations indicate disturbances in the functioning of organs. The deviations are as follows:

• Pale urine indicates excessive fluid intake, pancreatic dysfunction (diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus) and renal failure.
• The ocher color is classic dehydration from intoxication or heart failure.
• Brown urine is a liver disease (hepatitis, cirrhosis), destruction of red blood cells after certain infections, especially after malaria.
• A bright red tint indicates the presence of blood in the urine. May be caused by the presence of stones in the bladder, kidney infarction, pyelonephritis (acute course), urinary tract cancer.
• A faded red color indicates abundant consumption of “coloring fruits”: beets, carrots, grapes, black currants. Doesn't pose any danger.
• Red-brown urine is a consequence of taking sulfonamides.
• A grayish tint with a pronounced sediment - kidney stones, tuberculosis or kidney infarction, rapid destruction of red blood cells. The use of streptocide and pyramidon also gives this shade.
• Black color – Michelli's disease (hereditary form of anemia), melanoma.

The color of urine is affected by the food taken the day before it is taken. To find out the exact result, it is not advisable to eat colored fruits or take the above medications.

Transparency level

The urine should not become cloudy within 2 hours after collection. A slight presence of mucus and epithelial cells is acceptable. Loss of transparency is possible if the liquid contains:

• Leukocytes – cystitis, pyelonephritis;
• Red blood cells – prostatitis, urolithiasis, cancer;
• Protein cells – glomerulo- and pyelonephritis;
• Bacteria – bacterial cystitis, pyelonephritis;
• Excessive amount of epithelium – renal failure;
• The loss of chalk sediment is urolithiasis.

The clarity of urine is largely influenced by the health of the kidneys. In addition, cloudiness may appear if hygiene is not observed when taking the analysis. Therefore, if pathological abnormalities are detected, it is recommended to conduct a repeat study with another portion of urine.

Urine smell

The test taken may have a subtle odor. The appearance of a specific aroma indicates inflammatory and putrefactive processes in the urinary tract:

• The presence of acetone notes in the smell indicates diabetes;
• The similarity of the smell to feces indicates the presence of a fistula from the rectum;
• Ammonia is felt in the urine due to fermentation processes caused by cystitis;
• The rotten smell is caused by gangrene of the urinary tract.

Urine has a very unpleasant aroma if garlic or horseradish has been ingested.

Specific Gravity (S.G.)

The normal relative density of urine in an adult is from 1.005 to 1.028. The increased specific gravity is caused by a lack of fluid intake or its excessive waste by the body (vomiting, diarrhea, fever, excessive physical activity with increased sweating).

This process can be caused by diabetes mellitus and toxicosis during pregnancy. Decreased urine output is called oliguria.

A reading below normal is caused by kidney failure. Also, a high ratio can be justified by consuming a large volume of fluid or taking diuretics. A more accurate picture of the specific gravity will be shown by taking the analysis within 24 hours - 8 portions are collected every 3 hours.

Urine pH (acidity level)

Acidity in the body changes throughout the day, which is why the test is taken on an empty stomach. During filtration, the kidneys remove hydrogen ions from the blood. The normal pH value of urine is 4-7.

If the PH value is above 7:

• Increased amount of potassium and parathyroid hormones in the blood;
• Lack of animal food;
• Metabolic, respiratory alkalosis;
• Urinary tract infection.

The acidity level increases when taking medications based on adrenaline and nicotinamide.

If the PH value is below 4:

• Decreased amount of potassium in the blood;
• Dehydration, fasting, fever;
• Diabetes;
• Abundant consumption of meat products.

The acidity level decreases when taking diacarb, aspirin, and methionine.

Protein in urine (PRO)

Normally, there should be no protein in the urine (PRO neg). Decoding neg – the absence of any component in the general analysis result card. Traces of protein are found after intense physical exertion or hypothermia.

• Stable positive factor PRO talks about chronic pyelonephritis and hypertension.

Glucose in general urine analysis (GLU)

The presence of sugar in the urine indicates problems with the pancreas. The patient is usually diagnosed with acute pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus, or excessive presence of carbohydrates in the diet.

Ketone bodies (KET)

This indicator is disrupted in people who change their diet to lose weight. The positive effect of the diet is noticeable if ketones are present in the urine. This is due to the fact that the body synthesizes its own fat reserves.

• Medical causes: diabetes mellitus, acute pancreatitis, glycogen storage disease.

Bilirubin (BIL)

IN healthy body In adults there is no bilirubin. Its presence indicates liver disease:

• Cirrhosis;
• Viral hepatitis;
• Cholestasis;
• Subhepatic jaundice.

Alcohol and other toxic substances consumed the day before have a similar effect on the analysis results. For chronic alcoholism pathological changes are persistent.

Urobilinogen (URO)

The presence of urobilinogen indicates that bile enters the small intestine in excess. Characteristic diseases are constipation, jaundice and initial liver damage.

Hemoglobin in urine analysis

Normally, this indicator should be negative. If hemoglobin, which appears during the breakdown of red blood cells, enters the urine, then the patient has one of the following pathologies:

• Extensive heart attack;
• Malaria;
• Crash syndrome (muscle damage due to injury);
• Poisoning by sulfides or mushrooms;
• Bleeding in the urinary system.

Hemoglobin is present in small amounts in the urine normally after a blood transfusion.

Red blood cells (BLD)

The BLD transcript must have no more than 3 units of red blood cells in women and no more than 1 in men. If an accumulation of red blood cells is found in the urine, then there are serious problems with the kidneys:

• Glomerulonephritis;
• Nephrotic syndrome, kidney infarction;
• Urolithiasis disease.

Leukocytes (LEU)

LEU decoding allows up to 6 leukocytes in the urine in women and up to 3 in men. It is this indicator that is considered an indicator of the presence of diseases of the urinary system and kidneys. The diagnosis of leukocyturia can be absolutely anything; an ultrasound of the kidneys and bladder is necessary.

Epithelial cells

Epithelial cells should normally be present in the analysis in small quantities– up to 10. A higher number indicates the presence of an inflammatory process. In laboratory conditions, you can find out the epithelium of which organ is present. This will help in making a diagnosis.

Features of a general urine test in pregnant women

Expectant mothers need to regularly undergo a general urine test. Decoding for pregnant women corresponds to the classical norms of an adult.

Inflammatory processes of the bladder are typical for every second woman carrying a fetus - therefore it is important to early diagnosis. Kidney pathology is more serious, therefore, examination in a hospital is necessary.

• It is especially important to promptly identify asymptomatic bacteriuria. In this condition clinical manifestations are absent, but there are changes in the urine - bacteria are detected.

All this can lead to various obstetric complications, so timely use of approved antibiotics is required.

Features of deciphering a general urine test in children

Decoding a general urine test in a child corresponds to the principles of adult diagnosis. Features – more flexible indicators for children under 5 years of age. In the urine of a child, unlike an adult, the following are allowed:

• Protein;
• Glucose;
• Urobilinogen;
• Ketones;
• Bilirubin;
• Salt.

Such components are explained by the early age of children and the characteristics of their diet. Cellular inclusions (leukocytes, erythrocytes) must strictly comply with “adult” standards. The card with the results of a general urine test must be shown to the pediatrician without fail.

Indications for prescribing a urine test

A general urine test is needed to determine almost any disease. It is especially important when it comes to nephritis, nephrosis, nephrosclerosis, pyelonephritis, urolithiasis and other pathologies of the body’s excretory system.

In addition to urinary tract diseases, the analysis helps diagnose tumors and inflammations. This study is called general clinical, because for any patient complaints is included in the standard examination.

A general urine test is indispensable in the following cases:

• Suspicions of an inflammatory process in the renal and urinary canals;
• Transfer of a bacterial infection caused by streptococci (1-2 weeks after recovery);
• The need to find out whether the treatment method is correct and whether there is progress in recovery;
• Additional research as part of any diagnosis;
• Preventive examination of each person 1-2 times a year;
• Detection of bacteriuria (the presence of bacteria in the urine) in the absence of any clinical signs.

When making any diagnosis, a urine test is used in the same way as a blood test. In the result card you can see how the body reacts to the stimulus. A detailed picture helps to clarify simultaneously several aspects in the interaction of internal systems.

You should not forget about preventive analysis 1-2 times a year, because any disease is easier to cure in the early stages.

A general urine test allows one to study in the laboratory the physical and physical characteristics of the liquid and microscopic traces of sediment in it, on the basis of which a number of diagnoses that are accompanied can be confirmed or refuted physiological changes structure of the substance.

Using the analysis, you can diagnose kidney diseases, problems with the prostate gland, bladder diseases, tumors, pyelonephritis, as well as a number of pathological conditions on the early stages when clinical manifestations as such are absent.

How to submit?

To conduct a general urine test, it is necessary to collect morning fluid, which has physiologically accumulated throughout the night. It is this kind of material that is considered to be the most optimal, and the results of its research are considered truthful.

Before collecting liquid, you need to perform a thorough toilet genitourinary organs to prevent foreign contaminants from entering the liquid. It is necessary to collect urine in sterile containers, preferably sold through a pharmacy chain - the so-called containers for biospecimens.

Twelve hours before collecting the substance, you must stop taking any medications that can change the physical and chemical parameters of urine. The analysis itself must be carried out no later than two hours after sample collection.

It is advisable to transport the liquid to the laboratory carefully, at positive temperatures in the range of 5-20 degrees - too low or higher values ​​can affect the sample and distort the true results of the analysis.

Indications for use

A general urine test is prescribed in case of regular mandatory examination, if urinary tract and kidney diseases are suspected. Also, this analysis is prescribed to patients who have suffered a streptococcal infection in the process of a preventive comprehensive study, as well as to assess the effectiveness of treatment and ongoing monitoring of the course of the disease.

Normal indicators. Decoding

In the laboratory, urine is examined for a number of indicators:

Or, for clarity, you can use the following table.