What does the formula Tb=Zs/C-Zv determine?
Break-even point
If in all the situations considered, the interests of the participants are respected, and possible unfavorable consequences are eliminated due to the created reserves and reserves or are compensated by insurance payments, is the project considered?
Sustainable and efficient
Late payments, irregular deliveries of raw materials and materials, fines paid and received and other sanctions for violation of contractual obligations are taken into account when using which method?
Adjustments to project parameters and economic standards
What factor appears when evaluating projects, research and development work carried out by any organization?
Bias factor
What provides the justification for technical, organizational or economic measures, as well as the development of supporting, functional or managerial subsystems, and the improvement of connections with the external environment of the system?
Comparability alternative options
Which model is a graphical representation of the connections between the main and subsequent options, which provides information about the names of management decisions, the main results of each decision and the expected effectiveness?
Decision tree method
What types of uncertainty and investment risks do not apply?
Foreign policy risk
What should a manager do first if the mechanism for assessing the implementation of decisions is insufficiently effective?
Evaluate the quality of the task
What is the functioning of the system of responsibility and motivation for management decisions?
Conditions for ensuring quality and efficiency
When the manager knows exactly the outcome of each of the alternative choices, the management decision is made in the condition?
Certainties
Which model is a schematic representation of a cost-effective phenomenon and process using scientific abstraction, reflecting their characteristic features?
Economic model
What characterizes the probability that losses will not exceed a certain level?
Risk acceptability
What parameter of the quality of a management decision represents the reliability, sufficiency and form of presentation of information?
Quality of source information
What is called incompleteness and inaccuracy of information about the conditions of the project, including the associated costs and results?
Uncertainty
At the stage of forming an expert group, what needs to be assessed?
Expert Agreement
Which method involves developing scenarios for project implementation in the most likely or most “dangerous” conditions for the number of participants?
Stability test method
What is not included in the decisions that characterize personal profiles?
Optimal solutions
What is not one of the main components of Model A?
Workforce efficiency
Which factor is not included in the method of strategic evaluation of provisions and actions?
TO competitive advantage of the company
What is not included in the elements internal structure Problems?
Task
What parameter of the quality of a management decision represents the speed of development, adoption, transfer and organization of execution?
Timeliness of decisions
Accounting possible probabilities development of emergency situations, i.e. acceptance and execution of controlled processes in real time?
Requirements for the quality of management decisions
What do scientific approaches to management include in the development of management decisions?
Conditions for ensuring the quality of management decisions
What does not apply to the security conditions High Quality and the effectiveness of management decisions?
Rational nature of the decision made
What is not included in the quality parameters of a management decision?
Mission of the organization
Include and include
Question
Which is correct: include or include?
Verb include (non-sov. species) - turn on (owl species) has the meaning:
someone-what into what. Enter, include in composition, number someone something. Include in the list of candidates for voting. Include a new paragraph in the instructions;
what into what. By connecting to a source of energy, put into action, put into action; to plug. Connect the device to the network. To turn on the light. Turn on the motor;
To have something in its composition; cover (usually non-sov. v.).
This verb, as can be seen from the instructions for its control (before the interpretation of each meaning), has double control when used in both meanings: in the 1st meaning - someone-what (Ivanova, point) what (to lists, to instructions), in the 2nd meaning - What (apparatus) what (to the network), and if the verb is used in the 2nd meaning, the second - indirect object is not necessary: Turn on the lights, speed, engine, headlights…
In the 3rd meaning, this verb can be used either with or without an object: Two volumes of collected works include notes, articles, letters And Two volumes of collected works include notes, articles, letters; This question includes or includes three aspects; The regiment includes or includes three battalions. The verb "to go" includes or includes, according to the Ushakov Dictionary, forty meanings.
In this meaning include can be used with a pronominal prepositional-case combination into yourself, subject to its (verb) inherent syntactic connections - double control with the predominant use of indirect object. This is due to the fact that in this meaning the verb include acquires the properties of a semantically non-self-sufficient verb, whose meaning receives its full realization only if it is extended by another word (or prepositional-nominal combination, comparative phrase).
In a phrase The automatic plant includes dozens of machines and mechanisms lexical error: verb used incorrectly include, it must be “extended” with a prepositional-case combination into yourself, otherwise you might think that the plant powers dozens of machines and mechanisms.
Right
include And include in the meaning of “to have something in its composition, to embrace.”
Look
Dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language. Yu. A. Belchikov, O. I. Razheva. 2015 .
See what “include and include” is in other dictionaries:
INCLUDE- INCLUDED, include what, whom in what; contain, insert, co-count, take into what number, opposite. turn off, exclude. xia, include oneself; | be included. Turn on Wed, end. action under ch. Inclusive, included,... ... Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
include- [activate] verb., nsv., used. compare often Morphology: I include, you include, he/she/it includes, we include, you include, they include, include, include, included, included, included, included, including, included, included,... ... Dmitriev's Explanatory Dictionary
include- oh, oh; including; nsv. whom what (what). 1. to Enable. 2. To have as its constituent part; cover. The last volume includes letters from the writer. Education includes training... encyclopedic Dictionary
include- a/u, a/eat; including; nsv. whom what (in what) 1) to include 2) To have as its component; cover. The last volume includes letters from the writer. Education includes training... Dictionary of many expressions
Everyone is for himself, and God is against everyone- Jeder für sich und Gott gegen alle Genre ... Wikipedia
KNOW YOURSELF- (Greek Gnothi seauton, Lat. Nosce te ipsum) inscription on the temple of Apollo in Delphi as a call from the god Apollo to everyone who enters. According to legend, this idea was brought as a gift to Apollo by the “seven sages.” Its author in antiquity. sources are often called... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
system- 4.48 system: A combination of interacting elements organized to achieve one or more specified goals. Note 1 A system can be considered as a product or the services it provides. Note 2 In practice... ...
products- product: The result of a process. [GOST R ISO 9000, article 3.4.2] Source... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation
product- 4.28 product: The result of a process. [ISO 9000:2005] Source: GOST R ISO/IEC 12207 2010: Information technology. System and software… Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation
management system- 3.20 management system: A system for developing policies and goals and achieving those goals. Note An organization's management system may include various management systems, such as a quality management system... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation
Books
- Self-transformation Creating a young soul Heads set of 3 books,. Book 1 .. Self-transformation.. The work of creating a new youth must begin with transforming oneself into young man. Self-transformation contains a gigantic charge...
If you cheat on someone, then no, you don't love them. It's time to stop lying to yourself and admit the truth.
If you cheat on your partner, it means that you don't really love him at all.
In true love there is no room for betrayal
And if you've cheated on your partner in the past, then it's very likely that you've been lying to yourself about your true feelings. I know this may be hard for you, but it is still true.
Honesty, devotion, mutual respect and fidelity - together with frequent communication between partners it is key elements healthy relationships. Treason crosses out all these elements at once, being their complete opposite.
When you cheat on someone you supposedly "love", you violate their trust, break their heart, and in many cases destroy their faith in true love, and that he will ever be able to find her.
Well, besides... when you cheat on someone who really loves you, you hurt them a lot.
If you've ever been cheated on, then you know what I'm talking about. Yes, sooner or later you reach the stage of anger and blind rage, but first... first you feel incredible pain.
The pain is so severe that at times it feels like you have been simultaneously stabbed in the solar plexus and your heart has been ripped out with hot tongs.
And along with the pain come questions... You ask yourself over and over again whether it was your fault, and whether it could have been prevented somehow.
Stop punishing yourself. In reality, your partner's cheating has nothing to do with what you did or didn't do, because he never truly loved you. The reason for the betrayal was not you, but him - completely, and even more.
Your partner is not ready for serious relationship. He doesn't respect you as his partner... hell, he doesn't even see you as his partner and life partner. Because otherwise he would rather hit himself than hurt you - especially with physical betrayal.
It all comes down to one thing- if you cheat on your partner, you don't respect him.
That's all. Dot. By cheating, you drag your partner into the dirt and tear your respect for him to shreds. When you truly love someone, you honor your union with that person. Treason... it has nothing to do with respect, honor, or even respect.
To be honest, we all want to fall in love with best friend. Someone who can make us laugh, with whom we can be interested, and with whom we can be completely open and vulnerable. Someone who can never intentionally hurt us, and whom we ourselves cannot hurt.
So why do unfaithful partners first say they love us and then do what... what they do?
The answer to this question will be given to us by Gigi Angle, who was previously distinguished by frequent infidelity to all her partners:
“I cared about the men I cheated on. I loved each of them - albeit in their own way. But I didn't love them enough to remain faithful. If you can't sacrifice someone else's touch, if you can't resist the urge to have sex with other people for the sake of your relationship with your loved one, then you don't value that relationship enough.”
“For the first time in all my crazy, chaotic intimate life It seems to me that I truly fell in love - madly, so much so that I am in seventh heaven. And this relationship of mine is different from previous ones in that I deeply, from the bottom of my heart, respect my boyfriend. I hate the very thought of allowing another man to touch me - it gives me goosebumps. I can’t even imagine hurting someone I love and respect so much.”
So yes, a once unfaithful partner may well fall in love so much that he will forget to even think about someone else’s bed. Well, those to whom he cheated may well not wait for this wonderful transformation, and look for true and bright love with someone who will be faithful to them.
Remember - you deserve honest love. Love in which there is a place for openness and mutual respect. And as long as you are honest with yourself and your partner, you are on the right track.
So try to talk to each other as often as possible, and always be ready for dialogue, so that if a problem arises, you can always discuss it. And most importantly, love yourself.
This world is full of insecure bastards, and one of them may well hurt you just because you managed to fall in love with him. Don't let him destroy your faith in true love...and love yourself for who you are.
Question
Which is correct: include or include?
Verb include (non-sov. species) - turn on (owl species) has the meaning:
- someone-what into what. Enter, include in composition, number someone something. Include in the list of candidates for voting. Include a new paragraph in the instructions;
- what into what. By connecting to a source of energy, put into action, put into action; to plug. Connect the device to the network. To turn on the light. Turn on the motor;
- to have something in its composition; cover (usually non-sov. v.).
This verb, as can be seen from the instructions for its control (before the interpretation of each meaning), has double control when used in both meanings: in the 1st meaning - someone-what (Ivanova, point) what (to lists, to instructions), in the 2nd meaning - What (apparatus) what (to the network), and if the verb is used in the 2nd meaning, the second - indirect object is not necessary: Turn on the lights, speed, engine, headlights…
In the 3rd meaning, this verb can be used either with or without an object: Two volumes of collected works include notes, articles, letters And The two volumes of collected works include notes, articles, letters; This question includes or includes three aspects; The regiment includes or includes three battalions. The verb "to go" includes or includes, according to the Ushakov Dictionary, forty meanings.
In this meaning include can be used with a pronominal prepositional-case combination into yourself, subject to its (verb) inherent syntactic connections - double control with the predominant use of indirect object. This is due to the fact that in this meaning the verb include acquires the properties of a semantically non-self-sufficient verb, whose meaning receives its full realization only if it is extended by another word (or prepositional-nominal combination, comparative phrase).
In a phrase The automatic plant includes dozens of machines and mechanisms lexical error: verb used incorrectly include, it must be “extended” with a prepositional-case combination into yourself, otherwise, one might think that the plant powers dozens of machines and mechanisms.
Right
include And include in the meaning of “to have something in its composition, to embrace.”
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Gross National Product is the total market value of all final goods and services produced in an economy (within a country) during one year.
Let's analyze each word of this definition:
- Cumulative. GDP is an aggregate indicator characterizing the total volume of production, total output.
- Market. The value of GDP includes only official market transactions, i.e. which have gone through the purchase and sale process and have been officially registered. Therefore, GNP does not include:
- Price. GDP measures total production in monetary terms, i.e. in value form, since otherwise it is impossible to combine apples with sheepskin coats, cars, computers, CD players, Pepsi-Cola, etc. Money serves as a meter for the value of all goods, allowing one to evaluate and compare the values of all the various types of goods and services produced by the economy.
- Ultimate. All products produced by the economy are divided into final and intermediate. Final products are products that go into final consumption and are not intended for further industrial processing or resale. Intermediate products go into the further production process or resale. As a rule, intermediate products include raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, etc. However, depending on the method of use, the same product can be both an intermediate product and a final product. So, for example, meat purchased by a housewife for borscht is a final product, since it went into final consumption, and meat purchased by a McDonald's restaurant is an intermediate product, since it will be processed and put into a cheeseburger, which will be in this case the final product. All resales (sales of used items) are also not included in GDP, since their value has already been taken into account once when they were first purchased by the end consumer.
- Goods and services. Anything that is not a good or service is not included in GDP. Those payments that are not made in exchange for goods and services are not included in the value of GDP. Such payments include transfer payments and non-productive (financial) transactions. Transfer payments are divided into private and public and are like a gift. Private transfers include, first of all, payments made by parents to children; gifts that relatives give to each other, etc. Government transfers are payments that the government makes to households under the system social security and to firms in the form of subsidies. Transfers are not included in the value of GDP: 1) since transfers do not involve payment for either goods or services, i.e. As a result of this payment, there is no change in the value of GDP, i.e. nothing new is produced, and total income is only redistributed; 2) to avoid double counting, since transfer payments are included in household consumption expenditures (as part of their disposable income) and in firms' investment expenditures (as subsidies). Financial transactions include the purchase and sale of securities (stocks and bonds) on the stock market. Since there is also no payment for either goods or services behind the security, these transactions do not change the value of GDP and are the result of a redistribution of funds between economic agents. (It should be borne in mind that the payment of income on securities is necessarily included in the value of GDP, since it is a payment for an economic resource, i.e. factor income, part of the national income).
- Produced in the economy (within the country). This statement is important in order to understand the difference between the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the Gross National Product (GNP). GNP is the total market value of all final goods and services produced by a country's citizens using what they own, i.e. national factors of production, no matter in the territory of a given country or in other countries. When determining GDP, the criterion is the factor of nationality. And GDP is the total market value of all final goods and services produced in a given country, whether using domestic or foreign factors of production. When determining GDP, the criterion is the territorial factor. In most developed countries, the difference between GDP and GNP does not exceed 1%. The difference between these indicators is significant for countries that receive high income from the services they provide to citizens of other countries (for example, tourism services - Cyprus, Greece, Malta, etc. - or banking services - Luxembourg, Switzerland).
- Within one year. In accordance with this condition, all goods produced in previous years, decades, eras are not taken into account when calculating GDP, since they have already been taken into account in the value of the GDP of the corresponding years. Therefore, to avoid double counting, GDP includes only the value of a given year's output.
a) self-employment (a person builds his own house, knits a sweater, renovates an apartment, a master repairs his own TV or car, a hairdresser does his own hair);
b) free work (friendly assistance to a neighbor to fix a fence, to a friend to make repairs, to a friend to take him to the airport);
c) the cost of goods and services produced by the “shadow economy”.
Although the sale of illegally produced products is a market transaction, it is not officially registered or recorded by the tax authorities. The production volume of this “sector” of the economy is developed countries ah from a third to a half of the total output. The shadow economy refers to those types of production and activities that are not officially registered and are not taken into account by national statistical and tax services. The shadow economy, therefore, includes not only illegal activities (drug trafficking, underground dens and gambling houses), but also completely legal types, the profits from which are, however, sheltered from taxes. To estimate the share of the shadow economy, there are no direct methods of calculation, and, as a rule, indirect methods are used, such as additional electricity consumption above that officially consumed and additional money supply (amount of money) in circulation above that required to service official transactions.
GDP includes only the value of final products in order to avoid repeated (double) counting. The fact is that, for example, the cost of a car includes the cost of the iron from which steel is made; steel from which rolled products are produced; rolled metal from which the car is made. The cost of final products is therefore calculated based on added value. Let's look at this with an example. Suppose a farmer grew grain, sold it to a miller for $5, who ground the grain into flour. He sold the flour to a baker for $8, who made dough from the flour and baked bread. The baker sold the baked goods to a baker for $17, who sold the bread to a buyer for $25. Grain for the miller, flour for the baker, and baked goods for the baker are intermediate products, and the bread that the baker sold to the buyer is the final product.
Table 1. Value added
grain $5 $0 $5
flour $8 $5 $3
dough $17 $8 $9
bread $25 $17 $8
Total: $55 $30 $25
The first column represents the cost of all sales (total revenue from sales of all economic agents), equal to $55 (total output). In the second - the cost of intermediate products ($30), and in the third - the sum of added values ($25). Thus, value added represents the net contribution of each producer (firm) to total production. The amount of added value ($25) is equal to the cost of the final product, i.e. the amount paid by the end consumer ($25). Therefore, in order to avoid repeated calculations, only value added equal to the value of final products is included in GNP. Value added is the difference between total sales revenue and the cost of intermediate products (that is, the cost of raw materials that each manufacturer (firm) buys from other firms). In our example: 55 – 30 = 25 ($). In this case, all internal costs of the company (for wages, depreciation, capital rental, etc.), as well as the company’s profit, are included in added value.
Ways to measure gross domestic product (GDP)
Three methods can be used to calculate GDP:
- by cost (end-use method);
- by income (distribution method);
- by value added (production method).
The use of these methods gives the same result, since in economics total income is equal to the value of total expenses, and the value of added value is equal to the cost of the final product, while the value of the final product is nothing more than the sum of the expenses of final consumers on the purchase of the total product.
GDP "BY EXPENDITURE"
GDP, calculated by expenses, is the sum of the expenses of all macroeconomic agents, since in this case it is taken into account who acted as the final consumer of goods and services produced in the economy and who spent the funds on their purchase. When calculating GDP by expenditure, the following are summed up:
Household expenditures (consumer expenditures - C) + firm expenditures (investment expenditures - I) + government expenditures (government purchases of goods and services - G) + foreign sector expenditures (net export expenditures), denoted Xn (net exports)
Consumer spending (consumption spending – C) is the expenditure of households on the purchase of goods and services. They make up from 2/3 to 3/4 of total expenses, are the main component of total expenses and include: - expenses for current consumption, i.e. for the purchase of non-durable goods (these include goods that last less than one year, but it should be noted, however, that all clothing, regardless of the period of its actual use - 1 day or 5 years - refers to current consumption); - expenses on durable goods, i.e. goods that last more than one year (these include furniture, household appliances, cars, yachts, personal aircraft, etc., with the exception of expenses for the purchase of housing, which are considered not consumer, but investment expenses of households); - expenses for services (modern life cannot be imagined without the presence of a wide range of services, and the share of expenses for services in the total amount of consumer expenses is constantly increasing). Thus,
Consumer expenditure = household expenditure on current consumption + expenditure on durable goods (excluding household expenditure on housing) + expenditure on services
Investment expenses (investment spending - I) are the expenses of firms for the purchase of investment goods. Investment goods are understood as goods that increase the stock of capital. Investment costs include:
Investments in fixed capital, which consist of the costs of firms: a) for the purchase of equipment and b) for industrial construction (industrial buildings and structures);
Investments in housing construction (household expenditures on purchasing housing);
Investments in inventories (inventories include: a) stocks of raw materials and materials necessary to ensure the continuity of the production process; b) work in progress, which is associated with the technology of the production process; c) inventories of finished (produced by the company) but not yet sold products.
Investments in fixed assets and investments in housing construction constitute fixed investments. Investment in inventories represents the changing part of investment, and when calculating expenditures, GDP includes not the amount of inventories themselves, but the amount of changes in inventories that occurred during the year. If the stock of stocks increases, then GDP increases by a corresponding amount, since this means that additional investments were made in a given year that increased stocks. If the value of inventories has decreased, which means that in a given year the products produced and replenished in the previous year were sold, therefore, the GDP of that year should be reduced by the amount of the decrease in inventories. Thus, investment in inventories can be either positive or negative.
When calculating GDP by expenditure, investment is understood as gross domestic private investment. Gross investment (gross investment - Igross) is a total investment, including both restoration investments (depreciation - depreciation - A) and net investments (net investment - Inet): I gross = A + I net This division of investments is associated with features of the functioning of fixed capital. The fact is that in the process of its use, fixed capital wears out, is “consumed” and requires replacement, “restoration” of wear and tear. That part of the investment that goes to compensate for the wear and tear of fixed capital is called restoration investment or depreciation. In the system of national accounts they appear under the name “capital consumption allowances,” which can be translated as “the cost of consumed capital” or “consumption of fixed capital” in the economy. Thus, dividing investment into net investment and depreciation only applies to fixed assets. Investment in inventory is a pure investment.
Net investment is additional investment that increases the amount of capital of firms. The importance of net investment lies in the fact that they are the basis for the expansion of production and growth in output. If the economy has net investment I net > 0, i.e. gross investments exceed depreciation (recovery investments), I gross > A, this means that in each next year real production volume will be higher than in the previous one. If gross investment is equal to depreciation I gross = A, i.e. I net = 0, then this is a situation of so-called “zero” growth, when the economy produces the same amount in each subsequent year as in the previous one. If net investment is negative I net
NET INVESTMENT = net investment in fixed assets + net investment in housing construction + investment in inventories
GROSS INVESTMENT = net investment + depreciation (cost of capital consumed)
Investment expenditures in the system of national accounts include only private investment, i.e. investments by private firms (private sector), and does not include government investments that are part of government procurement of goods and services.
It should also be kept in mind that this component of total expenditure only takes into account domestic investment, i.e. investments of resident firms in the economy of a given country. Foreign investment by resident firms and investment by foreign firms in the economy of a given country are included in the net export component of total expenditure. If net exports are negative, then this means that net foreign investment is negative. If net exports are positive, then net foreign investment is positive.
The third element of total expenditure is government procurement of goods and services (government spending - G), which includes:
Government consumption (expenses for the maintenance of government institutions and organizations that provide economic regulation, security and law and order, political administration, social and production infrastructure, as well as payment for services (salaries) of public sector employees);
Public investment (investment expenditures of state-owned enterprises)
It is necessary to distinguish between the concept of “government spending” and the concept of “government spending”. The latter concept also includes transfer payments and interest payments on government bonds, which, as already noted, are not taken into account in GDP, since they are neither a good nor a service, are not provided in exchange for goods and services, and are the result of a redistribution of total income.
Net exports The last element of total expenditure is net exports (net export – Xn). It represents the difference between export revenues (export – Ex) and import costs (import – Im) of the country and corresponds to the trade balance: Xn = Ex – Im.
GDP by expenditure = consumer expenditure (C) + gross investment expenditure (I gross) + government purchases (G) + net exports (Xn)
GDP "BY INCOME"
The second method of calculating GDP is the distribution method or the income method. In this case, GDP is considered as the sum of the incomes of the owners of economic resources (households), i.e. as the sum of factor income. Factor incomes are:
Wages and salaries of employees of private firms, representing income from the “labor” factor, i.e. payment for labor services and includes all forms of remuneration for labor, including basic wages, bonuses, all types of material incentives, payment overtime work and so on. (salaries of civil servants are not included in this indicator, since they are paid from the state budget (budget revenues) and are part of government procurement, and not factor income);
Rent or rent (rental payments) - income from the “land” factor and includes payments received by owners of real estate (land, residential and non-residential premises) (at the same time, if the homeowner does not rent out the premises he owns, then in the system national accounts, when calculating income in GNP, the income that this landlord could receive if he provided these premises for rent is taken into account; such imputed income is called “imputed rent” and is included in the total amount of rental payments;
Interest payments or interest (percent payments), which are income from capital, payment for the use of capital used in the production process (therefore, the amount of interest payments includes interest paid on the bonds of private firms, but does not include interest paid on government bonds (the so-called “service of public debt”), since government bonds are issued not for production purposes, but for the purpose of financing the state budget deficit);
Profit, i.e. income from the “entrepreneurial ability” factor. In the system of national accounts, profit is divided into two parts in accordance with the organizational and legal form of enterprises:
Profit of the non-corporate sector of the economy, including sole proprietorships and partnerships (this type of profit is called “proprietors’ income”);
Profit of the corporate sector of the economy based on the shareholder form of ownership (share capital) (this type of profit is called “corporate profit.” Corporate profit is divided into three parts: 1) corporate income tax (paid to the state); 2) dividends (distributed portion of profits) that the corporation pays to shareholders; 3) retained earnings of corporations, remaining after the company’s settlements with the state and shareholders and serving as one of internal sources financing of net investment, which is the basis for the corporation to expand production, and for the economy as a whole - economic growth.
In addition to factor income, GDP calculated by the income flow method includes two elements that are not the income of the owners of economic resources.
The first such element is indirect taxes on business. A tax is a forced payment by a household or firm of a certain amount of money to the government not in exchange for goods and services. Taxes are divided into direct and indirect. Direct taxes include taxes on income, inheritance, and property. The taxpayer and the taxpayer are one and the same economic agent. Indirect taxes are part of the price of a product or service. The peculiarity of indirect taxes is that they are paid by the buyer of a product or service, and the company that produced them pays the state. Thus, the taxpayer and the taxpayer in this case are different economic agents. Since GDP is a cost indicator, then, like the price of any product, it includes indirect taxes, which must be added to the amount of factor income when calculating GDP. Although taxes are state income, they are not included in the amount of factor income, since the state, being a macroeconomic agent, is not the owner of economic resources.
Another element that should be taken into account (added) when calculating GDP by income is depreciation, since it is also included in the price of any product. So,
GDP by income = wage+ rent (including imputed rent) + interest payments + owners' income + corporate profits + indirect taxes + depreciation
GDP "BY VALUE ADDED"
The third method of calculating GDP is the summation of added values for all industries and types of production in the economy (value added calculation method). For example, the American economy is divided into 7 large sectors, such as industry, agriculture, construction, services, etc. For each sector, added value is calculated and then summed up.
It is obvious that the GDP value calculated different methods, should be the same (the difference can only be at the level of statistical errors). Theoretically, this conclusion follows from the fact that the sum of the values added by each firm (at each stage of production) is equal to the cost of the final product. On the other hand, value added is the difference between the firm's revenue and the costs of purchasing the products of other firms, therefore, it is equal to the firm's net income. All this is clearly visible in the diagram corresponding to Diagram 1 (definition of added value)
The bread was sold to the buyer for $25 (the cost of the final product is $25), the agents' income was: farmer $5 + miller $3 ($8 - $5) + baker $9 ($17 - $8) + baker $8 ($25 - $17) = $25, added value is : $5 from the farmer + $3 from the miller + $9 from the baker + $8 from the baker = $25. Thus, all calculation methods gave the same result - $25.
