Life and pedagogical activity of K. D. Ushinsky

Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky (1824-1870) was born in Tula, in the family of a small estate nobleman, and spent his childhood and adolescence on his father's estate near the city of Novgorod-Severskaya. He received his general education at the Novgorod-Severskaya gymnasium. In 1840, K. D. Ushinsky entered the law faculty of Moscow University, where he listened to lectures by prominent professors (Granovsky and others). In his student years, Ushinsky was seriously interested in literature, theater, and dreamed of spreading literacy among the people. He sought to independently sort out those disputes that were going on among the advanced Russian people about the paths of the historical development of Russia, about the nationality of the national culture. Upon graduation from the university, 22-year-old K. D. Ushinsky was appointed acting professor at the Yaroslavl Law Lyceum. In his lectures, which made a deep impression on students, Ushinsky, criticizing scientists for being isolated from people's life, said that science should contribute to its improvement. He called on students to study life, the needs of the people, and help them.

But the young scientist's professorship did not last long. The authorities considered this direction of his activity to be harmful to the youth, inciting them to protest against the existing order, and he was soon fired. For Ushinsky, difficult years of deprivation and struggle for existence began. For several years he served as an official, engaged in casual, small literary work in magazines. All this did not satisfy him, who dreamed of a wide social activities for the good of his country. “To do as much good as possible for my fatherland is the only goal of my life; I must direct all my abilities to her, ”said the young Ushinsky.

The social and pedagogical movement of the 60s contributed to the formation of the pedagogical vocation of K. D. Ushinsky. Working in 1854-1859. As a senior teacher of the Russian language, and then as an inspector of classes at the Gatchina Orphan Institute, he carried out a number of measures to improve educational work in it. From 1859 to 1862, K. D. Ushinsky worked as a class inspector at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, where he also carried out fundamental reforms: he united independently existing departments for noble and petty-bourgeois girls, introduced teaching subjects in Russian, opened a pedagogical class, in which pupils were trained to work as educators. invited talented teachers to the institute, put into practice the work of meetings and conferences of teachers; Pupils received the right to spend vacations and holidays with their parents.

The progressive activities of K. D. Ushinsky at the Smolny Institute caused great discontent among the courtiers who led the institution. Ushinsky began to be accused of atheism, that he was going to educate “muzhiks” from noblewomen.

In 1862 he was dismissed from the institute. Then he was invited to go abroad under the pretext of studying the organization of primary and female education and compiling a textbook on pedagogy. This business trip was actually a disguised link.

Everything transferred in Russia had a serious impact on Ushinsky's health, exacerbated a long-standing lung disease. But, despite a serious illness, he worked hard abroad: he carefully and critically studied women's educational institutions, kindergartens, orphanages and schools in Germany and Switzerland, wrote and published in 1864 a wonderful educational book “ native word” (Years I, II) and “A Guide to the Native Word for Teachers and Parents”. (“The native word” until October 1917 had 146 editions.) In 1867 Ushinsky wrote his main work “Man as an Object of Education”, which was a most valuable contribution to pedagogical science.

A serious illness, intense social and pedagogical work, which caused a sharply negative attitude ruling circles, undermined the strength of a talented teacher and hastened his death. On the eve of her, being in the south, he received some satisfaction, seeing how highly he appreciated his teacher.

The main pedagogical ideas of Ushinsky

The basis of his pedagogical system is the demand for the democratization of public education and the idea of ​​national education. Ushinsky's pedagogical ideas are reflected in books for initial class reading " Child's world"(1861) and" Native Word "(1864), the fundamental work" Man as a subject of education. The experience of pedagogical anthropology ”(2 vols. 1868-1869) and other pedagogical works.

K.D.Ushinsky, as the largest representative of pedagogy of the XIX century, made a special contribution to the development national pedagogy, laying its scientific foundations and creating an integral pedagogical system.

Ushinsky is universal as a teacher, as a teacher of perspective vision.

First of all, he acts as a teacher-philosopher, clearly understanding that pedagogy can only be based on a solid philosophical and natural science foundation, on the concept of national education, reflecting the development of this science and the specifics of national culture and education. Ushinsky is a theorist of education, he is distinguished by the depth of penetration into the essence of pedagogical phenomena, the desire to identify the patterns of education as a means of managing human development. Ushinsky, as a methodologist, developed issues of the content of education, the essence of the learning process, principles, private teaching methods, created the wonderful textbooks "Native Word" and "Children's World", which, according to the researcher Belyavsky, constituted an era in children's pedagogical literature.

As an educator-psychologist developed the psychological foundations of learning,

outlined a system of psychological ideas (he gave a description of thinking, memory, attention, imagination, feelings, will). Ushinsky also acted as a school critic. He put forward a program for the transformation of the Russian school, especially the Russian folk school, in order to bring it into line with the needs of the country's development and the democratization of education.

The idea of ​​national education in pedagogy KD Ushinsky.

Ushinsky's pedagogical system is based on the idea of ​​nationality. “There is only one inborn inclination common to all, on which education can always count: this is what we call nationality ... education, created by the people themselves and based on popular principles, has that educational power that is not in the best systems, based on abstract ideas or borrowed from another people ... Every living historical nationality is the most beautiful creation of God on earth, and education can only draw from this rich and pure source, ”Ushinsky wrote in the article“ On Nationality in Public Education ”( 1857).

By nationality, Ushinsky understood the originality of each people, due to its historical development, geographical and natural conditions.

In the article "On Nationality in Public Education," he begins, therefore, an analysis of education in the spirit of nationality with a description of those features that have historically developed among various peoples. Ushinsky gives an apt description and a deep analysis of French, English, German and American education. He dwells in particular detail on the criticism of the reactionary German pedagogy of that time, which tsarism was guided by. Ushinsky proved the extreme inexpediency of the mechanical transfer of this pedagogy to Russian soil.

K. D. Ushinsky emphasizes that one of the characteristic features of the education of the Russian people is the development of patriotism in children, a deep love for the motherland. Because the the best expression nationality, in his opinion, is the native language, the Russian language should be the basis for the education of Russian children; training in primary school should also familiarize children well with Russian history, the geography of Russia, and its nature.

K. D. Ushinsky pointed out that the Russian people showed and still show great love for their homeland, proving it with exploits in the fight against the Polish invaders at the beginning of the 17th century, in the Patriotic War of 1812, in the Crimean campaign of 1853-1855. However, this feeling, “awakening at times with truly lion-like strength,” according to Ushinsky, flares up in some people only in impulses when the homeland is in danger. An upbringing based on the nationality should teach to show this patriotism always, every day, when citizens fulfill their public duty.

This upbringing is designed to develop in children a sense of national pride, which, however, is alien to chauvinism and combined with respect for other peoples. It should instill in children a sense of duty to their homeland, teach them to always put common interests above personal ones.

Ushinsky was characterized by an inexhaustible faith in the creative forces of the Russian people. Thanks to their power, courage, stamina, the Russian people withstood the Mongol-Tatar yoke and saved Western Europe from the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar hordes; he repeatedly saved the independence of the motherland from the encroachments of foreign enemies. Ushinsky wrote that the people themselves created “that deep language, the depths of which we still could not measure; that this simple people created that poetry which saved us from the amusing childish babble on which we imitated foreigners; that it was from popular sources that we renewed all our literature and made it worthy of this name.

Russian music and painting, Russian philosophy also drew a lot from folk art: “from the gray, ignorant, rough mass flows a wonderful folk song, from which the poet, the artist, and the musician draw their inspiration; a well-aimed, deep word is heard, into which ... the philologist and philosopher ponder and are amazed at the depth and truth of this word ... ".

Being deeply confident in the mighty creative forces of the Russian people, Ushinsky put forward the demand that the cause of public education be left to the people themselves and that it be freed from the burdensome government guardianship that hinders its development. “Whoever is well acquainted with the history of Russia will not for a moment think about giving public education to the people themselves,” Ushinsky wrote.

In close connection with the nationality as the basis of education in the pedagogical system of Ushinsky, there is the question of the educational and educational significance of the native language.

In the article “The Native Word”, Ushinsky wrote: “The language of the people is the best, never fading and forever re-blooming flower of its entire spiritual life, which begins far beyond the borders of history. The language spiritualizes the whole nation and all its homeland; in it the creative power of the national spirit transforms into a thought, a picture and a sound the sky of the motherland, its air, its physical phenomena, its climate, its fields, mountains and valleys, its forests and rivers, its storms and thunderstorms - all that deep, full of thought and feelings the voice of native nature, which speaks so loudly about a person’s love for his sometimes harsh homeland, which speaks so clearly in his native song and native melodies, in the mouths of folk poets. But in the bright, transparent depths of the national language, not only the nature of the native country is reflected, but the whole history of the spiritual life of the people ... Language is the most lively, most abundant and strong connection uniting the obsolete, living and future generations of the people into one great, historical living whole. He not only expresses the vitality of the people, but is precisely this very life. When the national language disappears, there are no more people!” The native language, as Ushinsky pointed out, is not only the best exponent of the spiritual properties of the people, but also the best folk mentor who taught the people even when there were no books or schools. Assimilation of the native language, the child perceives not only sounds, their combinations and modifications, but also an infinite number of concepts, views, feelings, artistic images.

Basing his view on upbringing, education, KD Ushinsky proceeds from the following position: if we want to educate a person in all respects, we must know him in all respects as well.

The goal of education, according to Ushinsky, is the education of a perfect person. This is a very capacious, complex definition, which includes: humanity, education, hard work, religiosity, patriotism.

The purpose of education was understood as the preparation of a person for useful activity. In his youth, he wrote in his diary: “To do as much good as possible for my Fatherland.” Ushinsky saw the purpose of education in “giving a person an activity that would fill his soul and could fill it forever, this is the true goal of education, the goal of life because the goal is life itself.

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The main pedagogical ideas of Ushinsky.

The basis of the pedagogical system is the demand for the democratization of public education and the idea of ​​national education. Ushinsky's pedagogical ideas are reflected in the books for the initial classroom reading "Children's World" (1861) and "Native Word" (1864), the fundamental work "Man as an Object of Education. The experience of pedagogical anthropology ”(2 vols. 1868-1869) and other works.

The idea of ​​national education in pedagogy KD Ushinsky.

Ushinsky's pedagogical system is based on the idea of ​​nationality. By nationality, Ushinsky understood the originality of each people, due to its historical development, geographical and natural conditions.

In the article "On Nationality in Public Education" (1857), he begins the analysis of education in the spirit of nationality with a description of those features that have historically developed among various peoples. Ushinsky gives an apt description and a deep analysis of French, English, German and American education. He dwells in particular detail on the criticism of the reactionary German pedagogy of that time, which tsarism was guided by. Ushinsky proved the extreme inexpediency of the mechanical transfer of this pedagogy to Russian soil.

K. D. Ushinsky emphasizes that one of the characteristic features of the education of the Russian people is the development of patriotism in children, a deep love for the motherland. Since the best expression of nationality, in his opinion, is the native language, the Russian language should be the basis for the education of Russian children; education in elementary school should also familiarize children well with Russian history, the geography of Russia, and its nature. Education based on nationality should teach to show patriotism always, every day, when citizens fulfill their public duty.

This upbringing is designed to develop in children a sense of national pride, which, however, is alien to chauvinism and combined with respect for other peoples. It should instill in children a sense of duty to their homeland, teach them to always put common interests above personal ones.

Ushinsky was characterized by an inexhaustible faith in the creative forces of the Russian people. Ushinsky wrote that the people themselves created “that deep language, the depths of which we still could not measure; that this simple people created that poetry which saved us from the amusing childish babble on which we imitated foreigners; that it was from popular sources that we renewed all our literature and made it worthy of this name. Russian music and painting, Russian philosophy also drew a lot from folk art.

Being deeply confident in the mighty creative forces of the Russian people, Ushinsky put forward the demand that the cause of public education be left to the people themselves, and that it be freed from the burdensome government guardianship that hinders its development.

In close connection with nationality as the basis of education in pedagogical system Ushinsky, there is a question about the educational and educational value of the native language. Language is the liveliest, most abundant and strong bond that unites the obsolete, living and future generations of the people into one great, historical living whole. The native language, as Ushinsky pointed out, is not only the best exponent of the spiritual properties of the people, but also the best folk mentor who taught the people even when there were no books or schools. Assimilation of the native language, the child perceives not only sounds, their combinations and modifications, but also an infinite number of concepts, views, feelings, artistic images.

Basing his view on upbringing, education, K. D. Ushinsky proceeds from the following position: if we want to educate a person in all respects, we must know him in the same way in all respects.

In the 60s. 19th century the versatile activity of the founder of the Russian school of scientific pedagogy K.D. Ushinsky. Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky(1824-1870) was born in Tula, spent his childhood in the Chernihiv province, in a small estate of his parents. In 1844 he brilliantly graduated from the Faculty of Law of Moscow University and was appointed acting professor of cameral, administrative and economic sciences at the Yaroslavl Law Lyceum. However, in 1849 he was relieved of his post due to his participation in the riots organized by the students of the lyceum.

Some time after that, K.D. Ushinsky served in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, at the same time collaborating with such magazines as Sovremennik and Library for Reading, where his translations from English, reviews, abstracts of articles were published.

In 1854 K.D. Ushinsky was appointed to the post of teacher at the Gatchina Orphan Institute, and in 1855-1859. was his inspector, i.e. head of education. In 1859–1862 he was an inspector of classes at the famous Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, being in 1860-1861. at the same time as the editor of the Journal of the Ministry of National Education.

From 1862, when he was released from work, and until the death of K.D. Ushinsky was intensively engaged in scientific activities in the field of the theory of pedagogy and methods of primary education.

As a teacher at the Gatchina Orphan Institute, K.D. Ushinsky discovered a psychological and pedagogical library superbly selected by his predecessor, the well-known teacher Yegor Osipovich Gugel (1804–1842), the books from which had a very great influence on the formation of his pedagogical interests.

Already in his first pedagogical article "On the Usefulness of Pedagogical Literature" (1857) K.D. Ushinsky showed that the development of issues of family and school education contributes to the connection of pedagogical theory with practice, the transformation of pedagogy into the basis of educational art, based not only on abstract theoretical schemes, but also on the features of the historically established experience of public education.

The problem of the relationship between scientific and creative in pedagogy from the very first article becomes one of the main problems, without solving which, according to K.D. Ushinsky, it is impossible to find an answer to any question related to upbringing and education. The main goal of education K.D. Ushinsky saw in the spiritual development of a person, and it is impossible to achieve it without relying on the cultural and historical traditions of the people, on the peculiarities of their national character. Works by K.D. Ushinsky's "Native Word" (1861), "On the Need to Make Russian Schools Russian" (1867), "A General View on the Emergence of Our Folk Schools" (1870) are precisely devoted to the consideration of this problem. The beginning of this series of works was laid by the article “On Nationality in Public Education” (1857), in which K.D. Ushinsky, based on a detailed analysis of the educational traditions of European countries, concluded that education created by the people themselves and based on popular principles has an educational power that is not found in the best pedagogical systems built on abstract ideas. The basis of education, according to K.D. Ushinsky, is family education, which specifies the goals and objectives of public education.

K.D. Ushinsky

With regard to Russia, K.D. Ushinsky singled out three main principles of education: nationality, Christian spirituality and science. Linking the goal of education with the Christian Orthodox ideal of perfection that has historically developed in Russia, he believed that the best features of the Russian people were born by Orthodoxy. In the article "On the Moral Element in Russian Education" (1860), he expressed the idea of ​​an organic connection between pedagogy and religion, believing that modern Russian pedagogical thought grew entirely on Christian soil. Rapprochement of religious and secular education, according to K.D. Ushinsky, is one of the main tasks of the Russian folk school.

Of great importance in the moral education of K.D. Ushinsky attached to the development of a child's love for work. The power of labor serves as a source of human dignity, and at the same time morality and happiness, he noted in the article "Labor in its mental and educational significance" (1860). Here K.D. Ushinsky made an attempt to substantiate the importance of labor as a factor in the correct mental development of the child and his upbringing.

In the article “Pedagogical works of N.I. Pirogov" (1862) K.D. Ushinsky began to search for a way to solve one of the most important problems of pedagogy - the definition of the "basic idea of ​​education". To do this, he considered it necessary first of all to clarify what is the subject of education and what is the goal of education; to develop a model of education corresponding to the national character and traditions; to widely discuss a well-thought-out and reasonable educational idea.

According to K.D. Ushinsky, the subject of education is a person as such. The most fundamental work of K.D. is devoted to a detailed consideration of this problem. Ushinsky “Man as a subject of education. Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology”, the first volume of which was published in St. Petersburg in 1868, the second - in 1869. This work, which summed up all the previous searches of K.D. Ushinsky, made up an era in the history of Russian pedagogy. He failed to fully implement the plan of the work begun; two parts were completed - “Physical Part” and “Psychological Part”, in which K.D. Ushinsky considered the physiological laws of the activity of the human body and the mental phenomena caused by them, in order to find the reserves of education and expand the sphere of its influence. The third volume, devoted to pedagogical problems proper, was not completed.

K.D. Ushinsky rightly noted that education often seems to be a common and understandable matter, and sometimes even easy - and this is all the more so, the less a person is familiar with it in theory or in practice. The art of education, argued K.D. Ushinsky, relies on the data of anthropological sciences, on a comprehensive knowledge of a person who lives in a family, in society, among the people, among humanity and alone with his conscience. All this is absolutely necessary for a teacher who educates the younger generation to know. A new system of teacher education was needed to train such teachers, and K.D. Ushinsky suggested creating a pedagogical faculty at every university, where a person would be studied in all manifestations of his nature and this knowledge would be applied to the art of education.

Anthropological knowledge in the broad sense of the word makes it possible, according to KD. Ushinsky, correctly, taking into account the peculiarities of the formation and development of the psyche and the physiological characteristics of development, determine the content of education and the forms of its organization. Therefore, he considered it necessary to build education on the basis of taking into account the age, individual and physiological characteristics of children, the specifics of the development of their psyche.

K.D. Ushinsky carefully took into account the peculiarities of the development of children's attention, memory, imagination, sensory-emotional sphere, will, factors of character formation. Noting the existence of two types of attention, he pointed out that through stimulating passive attention, it is necessary to develop active attention, which has special meaning in the process of learning to strengthen memory.

As one of the most important conditions for the optimal development of the child in the learning process, K.D. Ushinsky drew attention to the need to take into account the feasibility of the content of training and its sequence. The special significance of K.D. Ushinsky gave the selection of the content of education. He believed, in particular, that there was no justification for excessive enthusiasm for classical education as a means of general development and its opposition to the real as a means of preparing for practical activity. K.D. Ushinsky noted that realism in education does not depend on a set of subjects of study, but on the general orientation of education. General developmental and practically useful should be presented in all education, determined both by the influence of science and the nature of the organization of schoolchildren's educational activities.

Based on the psychological characteristics of childhood, K.D. Ushinsky attached great importance to the observance of the principle of visibility as corresponding to the specifics of children's perception. He pointed out that the most important source of new knowledge for children is the experience acquired with the help of external senses. In this regard, the most important, according to K.D. Ushinsky, is the use of the game in teaching, which as an educational tool can be used even up to 16-23 years.

Didactic ideasK.D. Ushinsky relied on such principles as the solidity and strength of the assimilation of knowledge. Thus, he worked out in detail a methodology for repeating educational material, a method for the formation of general ideas and concepts in children based on visual representations, a method for the simultaneous development of thinking and speech in children. Following the principle of developmental education, leading from I.F. Herbart and even from Ya.A. Comenius, he protested against the separation of the functions of education and training, rightly pointing to the unity of these two principles in the education of a harmoniously developed personality. The concept of "subject teacher", according to K.D. Ushinsky, can only mean a low level of professional training of the teacher. This is an explanation by K.D. Ushinsky is fully applicable in our days.

The main form of organizing training to ensure the unity of upbringing, education and development of K.D. Ushinsky considered the lesson to be the most important element of the class-lesson teaching system, the basis of which is a class with a solid composition of students, a solid class schedule, a combination of frontal forms of learning with individual ones, with the teacher playing the leading role during the lesson. In general, K.D. Ushinsky deepened the classical doctrine of the lesson, defining its organizational structure, establishing its individual types. The type of lesson is determined by its purpose, for example, a lesson in explaining new material, when all other elements of the lesson are subordinate to this task, or a lesson in consolidating knowledge, or testing students' knowledge.

Special attention K.D. Ushinsky paid attention to the organization of educational activities in elementary school, where it is advisable to combine all types of lessons together. In general, according to K.D. Ushinsky, a lesson achieves its goal only when it is given a certain, strictly thought-out direction and a variety of teaching methods are used in its course.

The unconditional merit of K.D. Ushinsky began to develop the problems of primary education for children, to which his works such as the article “On the means of disseminating education through literacy” (1858), the book “Children's World and Reader. A book for class reading, adapted to gradual mental exercises and visual acquaintance with objects of nature” (1861), article “On the initial teaching of the Russian language” (1864), educational book “Native word. A book for students”, advice to parents and mentors on teaching the native language using the textbook “Native Word” (1864), etc.

However, the main place in the theoretical legacy of the great teacher is occupied by his theory of education, which should be based on the principle of nationality, understood as a correspondence to the spiritual and moral tradition of Orthodoxy, we are talking, of course, about the education of Russian children. Based on the principle of nationality, K.D. Ushinsky considered the patriotic feeling to be the highest, most powerful moral feeling in a person.

Ultimately, the goal of the moral education of children at school should be the formation of a personality whose qualities would be respect and love for people, a sincere, benevolent attitude towards the world around them, and self-esteem. Therefore, K.D. Ushinsky protested against the inhuman treatment of children, against degrading the personality of the child corporal punishment. Of all the punishments, the most acceptable, according to K.D. Ushinsky, are a warning, a remark, a low rating for behavior. At the same time, he emphasized that it is especially important to observe pedagogical tact and such an attitude towards the child that would not humiliate him in the eyes of his peers.

Title page and page of K.D. Ushinsky "Native word"

From the standpoint of moral education, he considered K.D. Ushinsky and the problem of encouragement, stimulation of activity in learning by competition. He believed that the educator should praise the child, comparing his progress with others, while noting only his own progress. Moral encouragement is the best way of moral education, developing in children the desire to move forward, making it a natural need for every child.

K.D. Ushinsky emphasized two factors of the educational impact on the child - the family and the personality of the teacher. Speaking about the qualities of a teacher's personality, he noted that a teacher is first and foremost an educator. The personality of the educator, according to K.D. Ushinsky, has such an educational power that neither textbooks, nor moralizing, nor punishments and rewards can replace.

K.D. Ushinsky covered with his work almost all the main aspects of pedagogical theory, developed the best method of primary education for that time.

V. I. Vodovozov

Along with N.I. Pirogov and K.D. Ushinsky in the 60s. 19th century criticized the education system in Russia and gave positive ideas Vasily Ivanovich Vodovozov(1825–1886). Like his older contemporaries, he defended the humanistic idea of ​​developing a holistic, creative and independently acting personality in the world.

At the center of his pedagogical concept, he put, like K.D. Ushinsky, the principle of visibility, believing that in the process of visual learning, students will be included in the world around them as active figures and workers. Pedagogical ideas of V.I. Vodovozov were reflected in his "Book for Initial Reading in Public Schools", which introduced students to the world around them. This manual was published in the 20th edition in 1896. V.I. Vodovozov outlined in a special "Book for the teacher."

During the reign of Alexander III (1881–1894), the democratic movement weakened and the influence of the government on public education increased. At the head of the Ministry of Education, a prominent legal scholar-statist was appointed, since 1880 the chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev(1827–1907). In 1896, in the "Moscow collection" he tried to answer the question of what should be a truly popular education. In his opinion, until recently, education was considered a certain amount of knowledge in the volume of the school curriculum, compiled by desk teachers. Thus, the school was cut off from life. This assessment concerned primarily the public school. According to K.P. Pobedonostsev, folk school should teach to read, write, count, love God, Fatherland and honor parents. It is important to prepare the child for life, to instill in him a love of work. The discrepancy between the content of education and the requirements of the family for its content leads, K.P. Pobedonostsev that the public school is becoming alien to the people.

The search for ways to improve the elementary school was reflected in the pedagogical activity of many followers of K.D. Ushinsky. So, Nikolai Alexandrovich Korf(1834-1883), a prominent figure in the zemstvo movement, created in the Aleksandrovsky zemstvo of the Yekaterinoslav province (now the Dnipropetrovsk region in Ukraine) a type of three-year one-complete school, which soon became dominant in most zemstvo provinces. In this school, in addition to reading and writing skills, students received initial information on arithmetic, national history and geography, and natural history. Main study guide there was a book for class and home reading "Our Friend", the author of which was N.A. Korf.

ON THE. Korf

A follower of K.D. Ushinsky, when considering the problems of the public school, was Nikolai Fyodorovich Bunakov(1837-1904), who saw the main task of primary school education in the harmonious development of the physical, mental and moral strengths of children. For this, in his opinion, it is necessary to make the content of education more realistic and the method of teaching more humane. Like N.A. Korf, N.F. Bunakov created his own school, for which he compiled a program, textbooks, teaching aids, including "The ABC and Lessons in Reading and Writing", "First Book", an reader "At school and at home" and a number of teaching aids for teachers.

The idea of ​​national education, and above all, the identification of the features of Russian education, was the core of pedagogical views. Vasily Yakovlevich Stoyunin(1826–1888). Criticizing the Russian secondary school of that time for its cosmopolitanism, lack of independence, poor teaching of national history, native language and literature, he believed that even in a folk school, teaching children native speech, one should take into account the history and psychology of the people, an integral and unique national religious culture.

The reliance in education on nationality, on the peculiarities of the national character, national culture and traditional life, which is an educational environment for Russian students, is characteristic of the pedagogical views of Russian philosophers of that time, such as V.C. Soloviev, E.N. and S.N. Trubetskoy, K.L. Leontiev, V.V. Rozanov.

N. F. Bunakov

Vladimir Sergeevich Solovyov(1853-1900) in a number of his religious and philosophical works - "The Meaning of Love", "The Moral Meaning of Life", "The Idea of ​​the Superman", "Philosophical Foundations of Integral Knowledge" - considered the problem of education and self-creation of the individual. He believed that the goal of human self-creation cannot be located only in the plane of the empirical world. Orientation in education to the present would be justified, in his opinion, if the life around us would be harmonious, beautiful and encourage creativity, in other words, if there was a “kingdom of God” on earth. The self-creation of a person is the movement of a person towards a human goal that elevates in us, towards a humane and higher goal.

Konstantin Nikolaevich Leontiev(1831-1891) in the article "Literacy and nationality" spoke out against the wholesale Europeanization of the younger generation, erasing the traditional Orthodox culture that forms the Russian people. According to him, the task of the school, if it really wants to serve the "world civilization", is to contribute to the maximum development of the national culture.

I agreed with this and Vasily Vasilievich Rozanov(1856 - 1919), who judged the school not as an outside observer, but as an active figure in public education, a teacher of Russian language and literature in a classical gymnasium. As a teacher, he published in the 80-90s. a number of works - "The Twilight of Enlightenment", "The Groundlessness of the Russian School", "Pedagogical Stencils". In them, he argued that according to the Russian school programs of that time, any foreigner could be taught with equal success, since they were designed for some kind of abstract student. V. V. Rozanov defended the idea of ​​a harmonious combination of universal, national and individual in the formation of a “whole” person.

All Russian religious thinkers advocated an active creative dialogue with their own past, history, culture, and religion. Their pedagogical ideas fit into the Christian ideal of organizing spiritual and religious social life. They developed the idea of ​​forming a "whole" personality in the "image and likeness of God", being staunch opponents of the secularization of education.

V.Ya. Stoyunin

The idea of ​​public education on the basis of domestic religious and cultural traditions was put into practice by an outstanding teacher Sergei Alexandrovich Rachinsky(1833– 1902). His main pedagogical work "The Rural School", published in parts over many years, was published in 1892. It outlines the system of original religious and pedagogical ideas of S.A. Rachinsky, which together constitute the program for the creation of a Russian rural elementary school.

According to S.A. Rachinsky, the folk school should be not only a school of arithmetic and elementary grammar, but above all a school of Christian life under the guidance of the clergy. In 1875, in the village of Tatev, Smolensk province, S.A. Rachinsky opened a school with a hostel for 30 boys, where he worked as a teacher until his death.

Education at this school, the term of study in which was 4 years, was limited to the study of Russian grammar and arithmetic, the Church Slavonic language and church singing. S.A. Rachinsky believed that it was unacceptable for students to strive to assimilate too much information. The center of education should be the communication of practical knowledge to schoolchildren. The teaching of the Church Slavonic language and church singing had, according to S.A. Rachinsky, a special meaning, becoming a school of spiritual culture. In such a school, the importance of the personality of the teacher is especially great. The activity of a teacher is not a craft, but a vocation close to that of a clergyman. He himself was a teacher who applied new forms of work with children, such as hiking, participation in folk holidays, games, round dances, teaching the culture of agriculture, etc. The experience of S.A. Rachinsky served as an incentive to create a number of rural schools around Tatev, where teaching was conducted by his students and followers and the number of students in which by 1896 was more than 1000 people.

Merits of S.A. Rachinsky were highly appreciated: by the royal rescript of May 14, 1899, he was appointed an honorary trustee of the parish schools of the Belsky district of the Smolensk province with the appointment of a life pension, which he himself used to build new rural schools and maintain existing ones.

S.A. Rachinsky

Ideas of Slavophiles and Russian philosophers of the second half of the 19th century. on the construction of the process of education and training in elementary school on a folk-religious basis had a significant impact on the orientation of the pedagogical views of the brilliant Russian writer Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy(1828–1910), who was in long-term correspondence with S.A. Rachinsky.

As a philosopher, L.N. Tolstoy was strongly influenced by A. Schopenhauer, arguing that human nature is an integral image filled with the spirit and will of God. But an even greater influence on the formation of the philosophical and pedagogical views of L.N. Tolstoy was rendered by J.-J. Rousseau, whose ideas of sensationalistic knowledge of the world were reflected in the teaching methods practiced at the school for peasant children, opened by L.N. Tolstoy at his estate in Yasnaya Polyana in 1859.

Pedagogical interests manifested themselves in L.N. Tolstoy back in 1847, when, having left the university, he decided that his vocation was the education of the people. The actual pedagogical activity of L.N. Tolstoy began studying in 1859, when a school was opened in Yasnaya Polyana. Since the autumn of 1861, the school was reorganized, the principle of free creativity of children, realized with the help of teachers, was put at the basis of the entire education system. Simultaneously with the opening of the school, the pedagogical magazine Yasnaya Polyana began to appear, on the pages of which articles by L.N. Tolstoy about public education and messages from teachers. During these years, L.N. Tolstoy made a sharp criticism of the traditional school.

Based on the idea of ​​J.-J. Rousseau about the ideal nature of a child, which is spoiled by an imperfect society and adults with their “false” culture, L.N. Tolstoy argued that teachers have no right to forcefully educate children in the spirit of accepted principles. Education should be based on the freedom of choice by students - what and how they want to learn. The job of the teacher is to follow and develop the nature of the child. This idea was reflected in the pedagogical articles of L.N. Tolstoy and his textbooks for elementary school, the creation of which he actively began already in the 70s. 19th century In 1872, compiled by L.N. Tolstoy "ABC", in 1875 - "New ABC" and four books for reading. At the same time, he resumed his teaching activities, trying to test in practice the methodology he had developed for teaching literacy. Received great support from L.N. Tolstoy, the initiative of the peasants themselves to open rural schools. This was the subject of an article by L.N. Tolstoy "On public education" (1874).

L.N. Tolstoy

In 1875 L.N. Tolstoy conceived the idea of ​​opening two-year pedagogical courses or a teacher's seminary in order to train teachers who would meet the needs of the folk rural school. In 1876, the Ministry of Public Education allowed him to open a teacher's seminary, but the idea was not supported by the Zemstvo and was not implemented.

In the 90s. 19th century L.N. Tolstoy changes a lot in his previous views on education, based on the idea of ​​a moral revolution he proposed, which was based on the thesis of free self-improvement of the individual. In the treatise "The Kingdom of God is within you" (1890-1893), he argued that a spiritual, non-violent upheaval can occur in a person with the speed of a revolutionary upheaval. The consequence of this was a change in all pedagogical approaches previously advocated by L.N. Tolstoy. The task of pedagogical science, in his opinion, should be to study the conditions for the coincidence of the activities of the teacher and the student on the way to a common goal, as well as those conditions that may prevent such a coincidence.

A peculiar result of L.N. Tolstoy the teacher was the article "On Education (Reply to the letter of V.F. Bulgakov)" (1909). In it, he defended the thesis about the unity of upbringing and education: one cannot educate without transferring knowledge, all knowledge acts educationally, he believed. However, the most important thing in education, according to L.N. Tolstoy, is the observance of the conditions of freedom of education and training on the basis of religious and moral teachings. Education, in his opinion, should be fruitful, i. to promote the movement of man and mankind towards ever greater good. This movement is possible only if the students are free. However, in order for this freedom not to become chaos in teaching, common grounds are needed. These foundations are religion and morality. Therefore, the first - and the main knowledge that must first of all be given to children - is the opportunity to realize themselves: how should I live and what to consider always, under all conditions, good and bad. Much in the successful movement of a person along the path of self-improvement of the personality depends, according to L.N. Tolstoy, from the example that the teacher sets.

In the article "General Remarks for Teachers" (1872), he defined the leading quality of a teacher's personality as follows: it is love. If a teacher loves his work, he will be a good teacher; if he has love for the student, like a father, mother, he will be better than that teacher who has read many books, but has no love for either the work or the students; a perfect teacher combines love for the cause and for the students.

L.N. Tolstoy expressed many valuable thoughts about teaching methods, advising to proceed from the student's attitude to one method or another, recommended not to adhere to one method, since there is no universal one. The teacher, in his opinion, needs to use various methods, look for them himself, based on the needs of specific students. The most effective method, according to L.N. Tolstoy, is the living word of the teacher.

Ideas L.N. Tolstoy were further developed in the activities of K.N. Wentzel, I.I. Gorbunov-Posadov and many other teachers of the late XIX - early XX century.

In the 60–70s. 19th century original thoughts on education were also expressed by professional revolutionaries. Their influence on the Russian teachers of the era of "going" to the people and after was quite significant. Among these thinkers, first of all, one should name Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin(1814–1876), whose views were largely formed under the influence of the Westerners of the 40s. XIX century, in particular V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, T.N. Granovsky. In the 60s. he headed the anarchist trend in Russian revolutionary democratic thought, and in the 70s. - the movement of revolutionary populists. M.A. Bakunin consistently opposed the idea of ​​religious education, declaring himself a supporter of a rational education that gives people strength. From his point of view, the anarchist reorganization of society from the bottom up could create equal conditions for universal education, eliminating the oppression of the "former authorities." The ultimate goal of education, according to M.A. Bakunin, should consist in the formation of free people, full of respect and love for the freedom of others. He advocated the complete destruction of the existing schools in Russia. Instead, centers of "mutual learning" created by the people themselves, the so-called "free academies", should be organized.

Such a view of educational centers was a return to the ideas of the Decembrists. In the pedagogical views of K.N. Wentzel, his idea of ​​creating free children's homes reflected the influence of M.A. Bakunin.

A close position was taken by such thinkers as Petr Lavrovich Lavrov (1823–1900), Nikolai Konstantinovich Mikhailovsky(1842–1904), who believed that a person is active and kind by nature and ready to act for the benefit of people. Therefore, education should only reveal this inherent feature of human nature, which will become the basis for the formation of a socially active person who professes a rational philosophy of action and constant self-improvement.

A purely scientific direction in Russian pedagogical thought was followed by such prominent figures of Russian science as a chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev(1834–1907), historian Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky(1841–1911), biologist and anatomist Petr Frantsevich Lesgaft(1837–1909), physiologist Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev(1857–1927), etc.

So, D.I. Mendeleev in his pedagogical articles "On the direction of Russian education and the need for teacher training", "On public education in Russia" expressed a number of interesting thoughts about the high role of public education in the development and prosperity of the country and people, about the study of high school foundations of sciences, primarily mathematics and natural sciences, on the combination of theory with practical exercises, on inclusion in the content of education manual labor, singing and physical education.

Pedagogical ideas of a prince by origin, a scientist, an anarchist by social views Pyotr Alekseevich Kropotkin(1842-1921) were part of his social utopia. The central concept in his theory of anarchist communism was the concept of "mutual assistance". According to him, in order to achieve the development of mutual assistance in joint activities, it is necessary to educate in children the "social instinct" as the basis of morality. This idea finds further development in the idea of ​​collectivism and collective education.

D. I. Mendeleev

More pedagogical ideas of all these scientists will be considered in the future.

The development of the ideas of K. D. Ushinsky in the practice of secondary school was reflected in the pedagogical activity of V. Ya. Stoyunin, who contributed a lot of value to the teaching of literature, to changing the content of this subject in accordance with the ideas of nationality and universal education. He consistently defended the ideas of the originality of the Russian pedagogical school, believing that teacher training should be carried out in accordance with national, cultural, and historical traditions.

At the end of the XIX century. major works on the history of pedagogy appeared. The initiator of this trend in Russian pedagogy was a friend and colleague of K.D. Ushinsky, teacher and children's poet Lev Nikolaevich Modzalevsky(1837–1896), author of the historical and pedagogical study “Essays on the history of education and training from ancient times to our times”, one of the first researchers of the pedagogical heritage of Ya.A. Comenius.

Following L.N. Modzalevsky historical and pedagogical problems were investigated Mikhail Ivanovich Demkov (1859–1939), Petr Fedorovich Kapterev(1849–1922). P.F. Kapterev was the largest figure in Russian pedagogy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, being at the same time an upbringing theorist, psychologist, didactist, and historian of pedagogy.

As for M.I. Demkov, he brought together information about the development of the Russian school and pedagogy from the Middle Ages to the 19th century inclusive and became the author of a number of textbooks and anthologies on the history of pedagogy for gymnasium teachers, students of teachers' seminaries and institutes. The three-volume work "History of Russian Pedagogy" (1895–1909) M.I. Demkov has not lost its significance today.

Ushinsky considered education in close unity with the learning process and protested against the separation of education and training, between teacher and educator.

Ushinsky made a great contribution to the development of didactics. He paid special attention to the problems of the content of education. In the conditions of the socio-pedagogical movement of the 60s of the XIX century, it was resolved in the unfolding discussion about classical and real education.

Ushinsky considered the education system in Russia with its classical, antique orientation to be a great-grandfather's rags, from which it is time to abandon and start creating a school on a new basis. The content of education should include, first of all, the study of the native language, since "the native word is the basis of all mental development and the treasury of all knowledge ...", even subjects that reveal man and nature: history, geography, natural sciences, mathematics.

Ushinsky assigns a special place to the study of nature, calling it one of the "great mentors of mankind", not only because the logic of nature is most accessible to the child, but also because of its cognitive and educational value.

First of all, the school should keep in mind the soul of the student in its entirety and its organic, gradual and comprehensive development, and knowledge and ideas should be built into a bright and, if possible, an extensive view of the world and its life.

Ushinsky subjected both supporters of formal education (the goal of education is the development of the mental abilities of students) and material education (the goal is the acquisition of knowledge) to justified criticism for their one-sidedness. Showing the failure of formal education, he emphasized that "reason develops only in real knowledge ... and that the mind itself is nothing but well-organized knowledge." The material direction was criticized for its utilitarianism, for the pursuit of directly practical benefits. Ushinsky considers it necessary both to develop the mental powers of students and to acquire knowledge related to life.

Proceeding from the fact that not sciences, but the fundamentals of sciences are studied at school, Ushinsky distinguished between the concepts of science and subject and determined the relationship between them. His merit is that he was engaged in the processing of scientific knowledge in accordance with age and psychological features students, i.e. reworking the scientific system into a didactic one.

Education was considered by Ushinsky as a feasible activity of children under the guidance of a teacher. Teaching should be a labor that develops and strengthens the will of children.

Education as a specific form of the process of cognition has its own logical structure: 1st stage - cognition at the stage of sensory perception (sensation, representation). The teacher should contribute to the accumulation of material by students, teach them to observe, the second - knowledge at the stage of the rational process (concepts and judgments). The teacher teaches to compare, compare facts, generalize, draw conclusions, conclusions. The third stage of ideological (reasonable) knowledge is the stage of formation of self-consciousness, worldview. The teacher brings the system of knowledge, contributes to the formation of the worldview. And the next step in mastering the acquired knowledge is consolidation.

Teaching and learning are connected into a single whole when teaching begins in a timely manner, develops gradually and organically, maintains constancy, excites the student's initiative, avoids both excessive tension and excessive ease of study, ensures the morality and usefulness of the material and its application.

In the field of organization and specific methodology of the educational process, Ushinsky developed the question: how to teach a child to learn, the problem of activating the educational process, cognitive activity, development of thinking, a combination of mechanical and logical memorization, repetition, unity of observation and interest, attention, speech. The great teacher scientifically substantiated and comprehensively developed the didactic principles of visualization (associating it with the problem of thinking, speech (especially for younger students) and the development of the personality in general), consciousness, feasibility, consistency, strength.

Teaching is carried out by two main methods - synthetic and analytical. Methods are complemented by techniques, there are four of them: dogmatic (or suggesting), socratic (or asking), heuristic (or giving tasks), secro-sematic (or expounding). All of them, combined or combined in teaching, are applied in each class and in each lesson, taking into account the age of the student and the content of the subject.

Ushinsky's thoughts about education are united by the general idea of ​​educative and developmental education. If the development, formation and upbringing of the personality is carried out in its unity through training, then the training itself is inevitable, according to Ushinsky, it must be developing and educating. Ushinsky considered education to be a powerful organ of education. Science should act not only on the mind, but also on the soul, feeling.

He writes: "Why teach history, literature, the whole multitude of sciences, if this teaching does not make us love the idea and truth more than money, cards and wine, and put spiritual virtues above accidental advantages." According to Ushinsky, education can fulfill educational and upbringing tasks only if it meets three basic conditions: connection with life, compliance with the nature of the child and the characteristics of his psychophysical development, and teaching in his native language.

Ushinsky paid much attention to the lesson, the development of requirements for the organization of classroom classes: they should give solid deep knowledge, teach them to get it on their own, develop the cognitive powers and abilities of the student, and educate morally valuable qualities. Ushinsky opposes stencilling, schematism and template in the construction of the lesson, formalism, which fetters the creative initiative of teachers. They were given a typology of lessons.

Ushinsky pays much attention to the problem of initial education. He writes that "the younger the age, the greater should be the pedagogical training of persons who educate and educate children." Primary school should lay the foundation for general education and educate positive traits personality.

Ushinsky wrote educational books for elementary school: "Native Word" and "Children's World", in which he implemented his methodological principles. In these books, he included extensive material from natural history (nature), as well as life facts and phenomena related to the study of the Motherland, contributing to the education of love for the common people; selected material for mental exercises and development of the gift of speech; introduced sayings, proverbs, riddles, jokes, Russian fairy tales in order to develop sensitivity to the sound beauty of the language.

Ushinsky substantiated the sound, analytical-synthetic method of teaching literacy in elementary school, explanatory reading. He showed the need to study nature and use it as a means of comprehensive development of the student's personality, education of observation, development logical thinking, because the logic of nature is the most accessible and most useful logic for children, and it is "the great mentor of mankind."

In a properly organized school, connected with life and modernity, Ushinsky assigned the leading role to the teacher. In the article "On the Usefulness of Pedagogical Literature" Ushinsky makes an attempt to raise the authority of the teacher, to show his enormous social role. It presents a vivid image of a folk teacher and formulates the basic requirements for him: "The educator, standing on a level with the modern course of education, feels himself ... an intermediary between everything that was noble and high in the past history of people, and the new generation, the keeper of the saints the testaments of people who fought for the truth and for the good ... his work, modest in appearance, is one of the greatest works of history.

Ushinsky claimed the personality of the teacher-educator as the center and soul of the school: “In education, everything should be based on the personality of the educator, because the educational power flows only from the living source of the human personality ... Only a personality can act on the development and definition of a personality, only character can form a character ".

The teacher must have strong convictions; deep knowledge and skills in the sciences that he will teach; know pedagogy, psychology, physiology; master the practical art of teaching; love your work and selflessly serve it.