Jewelry art in Ancient Rus' flourished already in the era of Yaroslav the Wise and Vladimir Monomakh (10th-early 13th centuries), striking with its beauty the European travelers who visited Rus' in those days.
Jewelry art in Rus' has rich history and is rooted in the ancient life of peasant settlements. It is interesting that the first craftsmen to make such products were women. That's who didn't have to worry about where to buy jewelry.
In those days they made different types jewelry. The process was as follows - women skillfully wove beautiful products from wired cords, covered them with clay and, after drying, annealed them in a special oven. In place of the burnt wax, molten silver or bronze was poured. The result was silver jewelry or intricate items made of bronze. They looked as if they were woven from metal thread.
If in pre-Christian Rus' the jewelry craft was the lot of women, then already in the 10th century men took up casting, using stone and clay molds. In addition to casting, engraving and chasing appear, and with them real designer jewelry.
Representatives of each tribe brought something original to the making of jewelry, peculiar only to them. A clear example of this is the “kolta” temple jewelry. Women wove them into their hair or attached them to their headdress - up to three pieces on each temple.
Gold and silversmiths, who eventually moved to the cities, mastered patterns and techniques that came from the north and east. Skilfully combining the traditions of their ancestors with new knowledge, jewelers preserved their own unique flavor, amazing with their works not only their own, but also our contemporaries. These are tiaras and crowns, barmas, hryvnias, kolta, bracelets, crosses, buckles.
In those distant times, the country was influenced by several developed cultures at once (Greek, Jewish, Armenian, Scandinavian, Islamic and, of course, Byzantine) (Figure 3.4). All this, of course, could not help but be reflected in jewelry, where the motifs of East Slavic paganism, the subtle art of the Viking Age, intricate oriental motifs and Christian elements are intricately intertwined.
Certain monuments of ancient Russian jewelry art have gained enormous popularity - articles and books are written about them, their photographs are placed in albums dedicated to the culture of pre-Mongol Rus'.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion turned out to be disastrous for many secrets of jewelry art. The masters who owned them disappeared during the hard times of Bato’s defeat or were stolen by the Horde to serve their rulers. For a whole century, the skill of ancient Russian jewelers was practically in decline, and only in the middle - second half of the 14th century. its slow revival began.
At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century, a most important period began for Russia. The time of the Mongol-Tatar yoke ended and a centralized state was formed. Moscow has become the center of the country's political, economic and cultural life. Court ceremonies required magnificent decoration, which became an incentive for rapid development jewelry making.
Figure 3. Pendant Figure 4. Cap of the Russian kingdom and royal crowns
Artists, carvers, gunsmiths, embroiderers and foundry workers came to the capital from all over the Russian land. In addition to Russian craftsmen, foreign artisans of various specialties also worked. Under Ivan IV the Terrible there were especially many of them, and the German Settlement was formed. The collaboration of Russian and Western European craftsmen had a huge impact on the jewelry art of Russia at that time. At the same time, the creativity of Moscow jewelers retained its national character.
The work of Russian jewelers could be seen during special embassy ceremonies, which were established by Ivan the Terrible and lasted until the end of the 17th century with only a few changes.
Foreigners who visited Russia left rave reviews in their notes about the work of Moscow jewelers. The luxury of the attributes of royal power - a golden scepter, showered precious stones, the richest porphyry, the golden diadem and the throne of the Russian Tsar, brought foreigners into indescribable delight. And the gold clothes of the servants, which they changed three times during dinner, aroused amazement and envy. In general, the royal court, even under subsequent kings, was distinguished by pomp and luxury.
In Russian history, periods of rise alternated with decline. An example of this is the Polish-Swedish intervention of the early 17th century, during which the Kremlin storage facilities were pretty much emptied. At the end of 1612, when the enemies were driven out, a gradual revival began.
During the times of Rus' there was a flourishing of artistic crafts, a special place among which was occupied by metal processing, namely jewelry making. Kyiv became its center. The bases for metal products were made using casting techniques, which made it possible to create unique or mass-produced products. The former were made using wax models, and the latter using stone molds.
Gold and gold coins became especially widespread at this time. silver products, which were performed in various techniques. Through the use of techniques called filigree, overhead and openwork, a dynamic and light relief ornament was created. The scanned patterns, as a rule, contained motifs of a circle, a rhombus and a triangle.
XXII-XIII centuries. - the period of greatest prosperity of jewelry art in Rus'. Then the masters mastered many new techniques - “graining”, “filigree”, and “filigree”. Thanks to them, they learned how to make amazing jewelry, for example, an original woven silver ring or curly earrings. New, previously unknown styles of jewelry are emerging.
The skill of ancient masters can hardly be overestimated. The Russian Museum houses ancient silver kolts. They are made in the form of an oval shield decorated with six cones. On each such cone there are 6 thousand small rings soldered, and on each silver ring the grains are soldered, that is, 30 thousand silver grains on the Colt alone. Modern jewelry can only vaguely resemble what our ancestors once made, although there are some that definitely fall under the concept of “Slavic style.”
The destruction of communal-tribal relations and the emergence of specialists in narrow fields - these are the changes that are characterized in the eighth-ninth centuries Ancient Rus'. Crafts lead to the emergence of cities, separating part of the population from working on the land. This is due to the appearance of the first specialists - masters in certain types of crafts, which were concentrated in tribal centers - cities.
Cities - craft centers
They tried to build the city in such a way that its geographical position would allow trade to be carried out as best as possible and at the same time successfully defended against enemies. For example, in a place where two rivers merged, or around a hill. Representatives of the authorities also settled in cities. Therefore they were well guarded. Gradually, with the development of crafts, cities began to represent not just military fortifications, but turned into shopping centers.
In the center of the city there was a Kremlin in which the prince settled. This part was surrounded by a fortress wall and surrounded by an earthen rampart. In addition, a deep ditch was dug around and filled with water. All these precautions were needed to protect against enemies. Outside, around the Kremlin, there were settlements of artisans, the so-called settlements. This part of the city was called posad. In many settlements, this part was surrounded by a defensive wall.
Life in the cities was in full swing, artisans created their goods, crafts and trade of Ancient Rus' were actively developing. By the twelfth century there were over sixty craft specialties. Craftsmen specialized in the manufacture of clothing, dishes, and tools that ancient Rus' needed. The crafts of Ancient Rus' developed rapidly and rapidly. Talented professionals from various fields lived and worked in the settlements: masters of blacksmithing, jewelry, pottery, shoemakers, tailors, weavers, stone cutters, and representatives of other crafts. The hands of these craftsmen created the economic wealth and strength of the ancient Russian state, its high material and spiritual culture.
Without iron - nowhere
The professional pioneers were blacksmiths. Their work became one of the most important areas into which the crafts of Ancient Rus' of the 9th-12th centuries were divided. This work is mentioned in folk epics and folklore: epics, legends and fairy tales, where the blacksmith is always a model of strength, courage and goodness. In those days, iron was obtained by smelting swamp ore. They mined it in the off-season, dried it and then delivered it to workshops, where they melted it using special furnaces. This is how metal was made. Modern archaeologists during excavations often found slags, which are waste from the metal smelting process, and vigorously forged pieces of iron masses. The found remains of blacksmith workshops preserved parts of forges and furnaces, around which artisans once worked.
The blacksmith will find something to do: goods for warriors and farmers
With the development of metal production, a new round of trade development begins, which the country, which lived on a subsistence economy, had not previously known. in particular, blacksmithing, had a pronounced practical orientation. The products produced by blacksmiths were required by everyone. They were needed by warriors who ordered weapons - arrowheads, sabers, spears, swords - and protective clothing - chain mail and helmets. Weapon production reached a special level of skill in Ancient Rus', which can be called real art. Unique armor was discovered in burials and necropolises of Kyiv, Chernigov and other cities.
Forged tools were needed by farmers: without iron scythes, sickles, openers, and plowshares it was impossible to imagine cultivating land. Any household required needles, knives, saws, locks, keys and other household items made in a forge by talented craftsmen. Finds in the form of burials of blacksmith masters showed that their working tools - hammers and anvils, chisels and tongs - were even sent to the graves with the blacksmiths.
Historians believe that Ancient Rus' knew more than 150 types of metal products in the eleventh century. The crafts of Ancient Rus' played an important role in the development of trade between settlements.
Jewelry making skills
Blacksmiths sometimes did minor work, creating small masterpieces - jewelry. Gradually, goldsmithing became a separate industry. This is how jewelry craft appeared in Ancient Rus'. Russian craftsmen mastered the technique of making jewelry so well that one could only wonder how they managed it. The skillful things that have survived to our times - bronze amulets, pendants, buckles, earrings and necklaces - amaze with the fineness of their workmanship. Jewelry was created using the graining technique, with a pattern based on many metal balls soldered on top of it. Another manufacturing method jewelry there was a scan. This technique is characterized by the fact that the pattern was created with a thin wire, which was soldered onto a metal surface, and the resulting gaps were filled with enamel of different colors. Jewelers mastered figure casting, as well as the niello technique, which required special art, when a pattern of silver plates was placed on a black background. Beautiful products with gold and silver inlays on iron and copper have survived to this day. Such complex techniques indicate what high level the development of crafts in Ancient Rus' reached. Thus, the hands of ancient Russian artisans created highly valuable jewelry made using the technique. This was a unique brand of Russian goldsmithing craft. The skill of Russian jewelers was a very complex technique, and their work spread throughout the world and was highly valued and in great demand everywhere.
And bricks and dishes were sculpted everywhere
The pottery craft of Ancient Rus' emerged as an independent industry a little later than blacksmithing. The potter's wheel appeared among our ancestors in the eleventh century. This allowed ancient craftsmen to create beautiful products. The design of the machine was simple, it rotated using a foot drive, but the dishes that the potters of that time were able to create amaze with the skill of creation and the variety of shapes. Initially, pottery making was women's business. However, in the literary manuscript monuments of Kievan Rus there are mentions only of male potters.
They used clay for their products, which they specially processed, moistening it with water and actively kneading it. Of all the pottery products, the greatest demand was for pots and other vessels, which were made in different sizes and used for different purposes; they could be used to pour water or store food and berries. The pots were placed in the oven and the food was cooked. Such dishes have survived to this day.
What were ancient Russian masters famous for?
Describing the crafts of Ancient Rus' of the 9th-12th centuries, we briefly note that the Russian Slavs of the pre-Christian period knew how to make coinage, produced ceramics, mastered the art of fine embroidery, and were famous for their skill in making enamels. The works of Kyiv artists have survived to this day. These are unique examples of bone carving, blackening, and metal engraving. Old Russian glassmakers and their tiles were famous all over the world.
Ancient Rus' mastered various crafts, but the most skillful of them was wood processing. Outbuildings, dwellings, gates and bridges, fortresses and walls were built from this material. The boats were made of wood, and all household utensils were lavishly decorated with wood carvings. It's no secret that the main souvenir that personifies the artistic craft in Ancient Rus' is the nesting doll - a colorfully painted wooden doll with nothing inside. The same beauties come out of it one after another, and each one is slightly smaller in size than the previous one.
Artistic painting
The decorative and applied crafts of Ancient Rus' were famous far beyond its borders. Since ancient times, our ancestors have delighted the whole world with their paintings. The variety of patterned motifs in Russian ornament has led to the emergence of different schools and directions of this folk craft. Each of them had its own colors and lines.
Gzhel
Bright blue-blue painting with cobalt white background porcelain was named Gzhel, which comes from the name of the town near Moscow where this trend originated. It was first mentioned in the charter of Ivan Kalita. At first, craftsmen made dishes and toys, but later, with the development of production, the range expanded significantly. Fireplace tiles were especially popular. Gzhel ceramics became popular all over the world. Other paintings of our ancestors also received names from the places of their creation and distribution.
Bright colors on a dark background
An artistic craft in Ancient Rus', which came in the eighteenth century from a village near Moscow with the same name. It is an oil painting on metal trays. It is easy to recognize by its bright colorful flowers, fruits, and birds located on a dark background. The applied patterns are then covered special varnish That's why they have such a shiny appearance. The technique of this painting is quite complex; the image is created in several stages.
Very cheerful shades are pleasing to the eye, so trays were very popular in Rus' and are still decorative element in many homes and institutions.
Palekh
From district center came to the Ivanovo region. This type of craft consists of paintings on lacquer products. Colorful folklore, everyday, and religious scenes painted over a black background decorate boxes, caskets and other things. It is believed that Palekh lacquer miniatures appeared in the fifteenth century, when Ancient Rus' was distinguished by the flourishing of cities and trade. Crafts were born different ways. For example, such a direction of ancient craft as Palekh miniature was created by ancient Russian icon painters. Skilled artists lived in Palekh, who received invitations from all Russian regions to paint paintings in temples and churches. It was they who began to paint the boxes with all sorts of fairy-tale and historical scenes. All images were painted bright on top of a black background.
The technology of this type of craft is quite complex; the process of creating miniatures itself is labor-intensive and multi-stage. It takes a long time to study and master it, but as a result, an ordinary dark box turns into a uniquely beautiful thing.
Khokhloma
Another type of hand-painted wood is Khokhloma, which appeared more than three hundred years ago. Dishes and household items painted with fiery scarlet flowers attract attention with their unusualness. Patterns that form beautiful ornaments are pleasing to the eye even today. There is a secret in creating Khokhloma products, which is that they are varnished several times and then hardened in an oven. As a result of firing, the coating turns yellow, and products made from wood appear to be gilded precious utensils. In addition, as a result of this treatment, the dishes become durable. Its coating allows you to use Khokhloma cups, bowls, spoons for their intended purpose - for storing food, for eating.
Popular prints
Lubok is another type of folk art, representing the crafts of Ancient Rus'. This activity involved creating an impression on paper using a wooden block. Such folk pictures were common in fair trade back in the seventeenth century and until the beginning of the twentieth century they were the most widespread and widespread type of Russian fine art. The subjects depicted by popular prints are very diverse: religious and moralizing themes, folk epics and fairy tales, historical and medical information, which were always accompanied by a small text that could be instructive or humorous and spoke about the customs and life of their time with the wisdom inherent in the people.
Crafts of Ancient Rus', 18th century: Russian samovar
We have the right to be proud of the skill of our Russian craftsmen. Today their works can be seen not only in museums, but also in our own homes. Some types of crafts were especially popular in Ancient Rus'. For example, the Tula samovar can still be found throughout our country to this day. In the eighteenth century there were more than two hundred various types these products. Nowadays, there is even a museum of samovars in the city of Tula.
Who were the first masters for whom Ancient Rus' was so famous? The crafts, unfortunately, have not preserved the names of their creators. But things that have come down to us from the depths of centuries speak to us. Among them there are unique rare objects and household utensils, but in each product one can feel the skill and experience of an ancient Russian craftsman.
When creating jewelry, craftsmen use a large number of a variety of techniques and techniques: thanks to them, each object acquires its own unique mood, value and significance. And, first of all, the quality of the jewelry depends on the skill and experience of the jeweler, because techniques such as filigree or granulation require enormous concentration, precision of movements and perseverance in their work.
We invite you to learn more about different jewelry techniques and their history.
Filigree and filigree
Photo of a product made using filigree technique (scany)
The filigree technique consists of creating an ornament by soldering elements of thin wire of precious and base metals together. The resulting lace can be soldered onto any base (brazed filigree) or form an air pattern (openwork filigree).
The term “filigree” itself comes from two Latin words: filum, which means “thread,” and granum, which means grain. In Rus' this technique acquired the name “skan” from the Old Russian “skati”, that is, “twist”, “twist”. Russian filigree technology originated in the 10th century. XII centuries, and by the 19th century it had already acquired the status of art. Decorations, vases, boxes, and decorative panels were made using filigree.
Christmas ball-box made using filigree technique (filigree)). Photo: Zlat-Dar
The essence of the filigree technique is quite simple, but it requires a high level of artistic and jewelry skill, since the whole process is exclusively handmade. First, a sketch of the future pattern is drawn on life-size paper. Then its elements are created from smooth or pre-twisted wire, which are glued to a paper sketch - they must exactly repeat the drawing. Under the influence of the flame of a special burner, the parts are soldered into a single pattern, and the paper is completely burned.
The village of Kazakovo, located in Nizhny Novgorod region. The first workshop opened here in 1939, and today it is a large plant of the Kazakovsky Enterprise of Art Products CJSC. The range of products is incredibly wide: jewelry, decorative elements, orders and medals, church and religious items. Due to their high quality and artistic value, the plant's products are successful in the domestic market and abroad.
Grain
In Russian jewelry art, filigree and granulation techniques are inextricably linked. Grain is usually used to complement filigree patterns, giving them a fuller and more finished look. The simple name of the technique fully reflects its essence. Grain is an ornament created from small, 0.3-0.4 mm in diameter, gold, silver or platinum grains. The balls are installed in pre-prepared recesses in the pattern on a thin layer of solder, which fuses them with the base in the flame of the burner. It is important that the solder can securely secure the pattern, but does not disrupt its clarity by spreading beyond the recess. In Rus', gold leaf mixed with mercury was used for these purposes; during the soldering process, the mercury burned out, and the gold quickly melted, forming a reliable adhesion.
Another condition for creating a high-quality pattern is the same size of all grains. To obtain them, thin wire is cut into small pieces, which are placed on pieces of charcoal, where recesses of a given diameter are located in rows; the molten wire flows into them, forming small balls, which will later be used for decoration.
Blackening
The blackening technique is also a fairly old jewelry technique. The blackening composition is applied to the surface of the product in accordance with the design, then the black is melted in special ovens, forming a contrasting pattern. Each master has his own recipe for the mixture for blackening; the color and strength of the coating, its thickness and density depend on its composition.
Often, to give the ornament clarity and texture, filigree and grained products are blackened. Also, a three-dimensional design can be applied using the methods of hollowing, chasing, and engraving.
Among all metals, blackening of silver is the most common, since in this case the product not only acquires a richer and more noble appearance, but also becomes resistant to chemical and mechanical damage. Gold and platinum are used less frequently only due to the fact that it is almost impossible to remove high-quality niello from the surface in the future, and such jewelry can no longer be melted down.
We hope that you found the information interesting and useful. We also invite you to get acquainted with the complex, but increasingly popular, technique of working with metals, which originated in the 17th century in Japan.
Jewelry art is the making of various products, usually from precious metals using semi-precious stones. Initially, such things served not only for beauty, but also to emphasize the high social status of the owner or owner. Also, magical functions were often attributed to jewelry. They were used, for example, as protective amulets and talismans. The history of jewelry goes back to ancient times. Initially, the creation of jewelry did not involve any kind of processing. Over the centuries, art improved, craftsmen created more and more complex and exquisite jewelry. Let's trace the history of jewelry craft and name its outstanding masters.
Ancient Egypt
Jewelry art was surprisingly well developed in Ancient Egypt. The jewelry created there still amazes with its beauty and complexity. In shape they usually resembled images of ancient deities. In Ancient Egypt, they believed that jewelry performed magical functions: they protected against diseases and evil spells, and connected a person with the forces of nature.
Jewelry was supposed to be worn on certain parts of the body. First of all, it was the area of the heart (it was considered the most significant organ). To protect it, items in the form of a scarab were worn on the chest. The beetle symbolized vitality, activity, resurrection. In addition, the middle of the forehead was an important point. Ancient Egyptian craftsmen, when making jewelry for her, used symbols of strength and wisdom, such as images of a snake. Speaking about the technique of making products, it can be noted that chasing and engraving were usually used, and the favorite materials of the Egyptians were gold, silver, obsidian and amethyst.
Ancient Greece
Ancient jewelry art in Greece was distinguished by great grace and subtlety. The favorite technique of the masters was filigree - making a complex pattern from thin gold or silver wire soldered to a metal background. Most often, floral designs were used: images of flowers, leaves, vines.
Of the materials, gold was most valued - this metal was attributed magical properties. In general, jewelry emphasized the status of the owner, so the finer and more complex the work, the more expensive it was. Rich Greek women wore a wide variety of jewelry. Elegant items for the hair and neck, as well as bracelets, were held in high esteem. The only exception was Sparta - local women did not wear lush and fancy jewelry, preferring simple metal jewelry.
Renaissance Jewelry
Renaissance jewelry amazes with its sophistication, beauty and complexity. The masters used the most different techniques, including embossing, cutting and enamel. They were largely influenced by ancient traditions; at the same time, features typical of those years were also introduced.
Thus, jewelry no longer indicates the status of the owner as much as it emphasizes the sophistication of taste and imagination. They become unique and original. Gems, pearls and exquisite enamel details decorate not only jewelry, but also luxurious ladies' outfits. Rings and massive pendants are becoming increasingly popular.
In Germany, craftsmen use very unusual materials: coconut shells, ostrich eggs and shells.
Jewelers of Ancient Rus'
Russian jewelry art has great history. Evidence of this is the modern quality and subtlety of the work of ancient craftsmen that amazes even now. Jewelry was influenced by Scandinavian, Oriental and Byzantine cultures, and at the same time inextricably linked with folk customs and traditions.
Craftsmen from all corners of Kievan Rus were fluent in the most complex techniques, including artistic casting, filigree and gold casting. Veliky Novgorod was famous for its jewelry made of precious metals. Kyiv jewelers processed gems with extraordinary skill. The most common decorations were the so-called ones that were woven into the hairstyle or hung from hats. Women also wore a variety of bracelets and beads with pendants.
Rus' in the XIV - XVII centuries
With the advent of the Tatar-Mongol hordes, jewelry making was forgotten for almost a century. Many craftsmen died or were taken away to work for the Horde rulers. Only towards the end of the 14th century did a gradual return to ancient art. Moscow is becoming the center of jewelry crafts, where the filigree silver technique is very popular.
In the 16th - 17th centuries, jewelry actively used enamel and gems. The jewelry of this period is characterized by richness, colorfulness and richness of colors. The stones are also distinguished by their brightness - sapphires, rubies, and emeralds are held in high esteem. This time is called the heyday of the blackening technique. Silversmithing centers were established in many cities.
European jewelry of the 18th century
In the 18th century, the dominant styles were Baroque and Rococo. This also applies to jewelry. Fancy, pomp and bright colors are becoming fashionable. At the same time, French jewelry occupies a leading position. It was then that jewelry acquired its modern look. Jewelry ensembles are gradually coming into fashion; large brooches are very popular among wealthy people. The most favorite stones are diamonds of yellowish, pinkish and bluish shades, and they are used in both men's and women's costumes.
Rus' in the 18th century
In Russia in the 18th century, jewelry art flourished. This happened largely thanks to the reforms of Peter I. Since then, jewelry has been actively borrowing European trends, while maintaining its originality. Foreign masters often come to Russia. Among them is the famous Jeremy Pozier, who worked at court for thirty years and created true masterpieces of jewelry. His best work is rightfully considered the Great Imperial Crown, made for Catherine II. This unique product contains almost five thousand diamonds. Now this relic is carefully preserved by a unique museum of jewelry art - the Diamond Fund in Moscow.
In general, the use of gemstones becomes popular during this time. Sparkling, bright, superbly crafted and decorated, they perfectly complement and decorate the magnificent outfits of noble ladies and nobles.
Interestingly, the word “jeweler” itself also came into use in the 18th century. It replaced the rather long title “gold and silversmith”.
Europe in the 19th century
In the middle of the 19th century, jewelry making became more widespread. At the same time, they began to use less valuable stones and materials: aquamarine, malachite, artificial diamonds. Jewelry art has also changed its general style - classicism is replacing rococo, and accordingly, jewelry is becoming more strict and carefully designed. Products with precious stones are gradually ceasing to be used in men's suits, but cane knobs and expensive snuff boxes are becoming fashionable.
Among the famous masters, one can highlight the court jeweler of Napoleon I, Martin Guillaume Bienne. In the 19th century, such world-famous houses as Cartier and Tiffany were born.
The state of affairs in Russia in the 19th century
Jewelry art in Russia reached its highest level in the 19th century. At this time, the direction of work changes significantly, the craftsmen try to move away from European traditions and return to the original Russian ones, giving the products a national flavor. Freshwater pearls are becoming especially fashionable.
Large silver and gold enterprises appeared in St. Petersburg and Moscow. The firms of Ovchinnikov, Postnikov, and the Grachev brothers are especially famous and, of course, with their amazing skill they conquer not only the Russian nobility, but also the royal courts of Western Europe. However, their products are also available to the average buyer - we are talking about cigarette cases and silverware.
According to experts, the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries is the golden age of Russian jewelry.
The twentieth century
In the last century, a large number of trends were formed in jewelry. In the first decades, the dominant style was Art Nouveau. In jewelry art, his influence was realized in the extreme complexity of the forms and ornaments of jewelry. Platinum and palladium are actively used, and diamonds are gaining popularity again. Costume jewelry is also becoming fashionable, the distribution of which was significantly influenced by the famous Coco Chanel.
In the war and post-war years, products become simpler, gold is often replaced by bronze. In the second half of the century, under the influence of nonconformist ideas, craftsmen began to use unusual materials in their work, previously unthinkable for jewelry: wood, plastic, steel and others. With development complex technology jewelry with chameleon stones appears, capable of changing color depending on temperature changes or the mood of the owner. Becoming popular cultured pearls various colors.
During the Soviet years, Russian jewelry companies produced mostly mass products. But at the end of the last century, modern masters decided to revive the guild of Russian jewelers in order to return the art of jewelry to its former glory.
Modern Art
Nowadays, jewelry craft, perhaps even more than before, is becoming an art. Jewelry is a form of creative self-expression. Modern enterprises use more professional tools and available materials. Moreover, many products are made from synthetic materials. And although they cannot surpass in beauty and perfection natural stones, still compete with them with dignity.
Modern jewelry art worthily continues the traditions of the old masters. And the use of new technologies allows you to create more and more unusual and interesting jewelry.
"Novgorod State University
named after Yaroslav the Wise"
Department of National History
ABSTRACT
on the topic: “Jewelry making in ancient Rus'.
Review of jewelry techniques"
in the discipline “Cities of Ancient Rus': Activities, Life and Culture”
PERFORMED:
student of group 1231
CHECKED:
Head of the research department
Novgorod land,
Velikiy Novgorod
Introduction…………………………………………………………………….……3
1. Foundry……………………………………..………..…………………7
1.1. Foundry in an ancient Russian village…………..……….…….7
1.2. Casting technique in the ancient Russian city……………….………...10
2. Forging and minting…………………………………………….………..13
3. Embossing and stamping of silver and gold……………………………..19
4. Niello, gilding and inlay………………………………………………………..23
4.1. Mob………………………………………………………….23
4.2. Inlay……………………………………………………….27
4.3. Gilding technique……………………………………………………………28
5. Wire drawing, filigree and granulation……………………………29
Conclusion…………………………………………......………………..34
List of used literature……………………………………………………...36
INTRODUCTION
Jewelry art is the production of artistic products from precious (gold, silver, platinum), as well as some non-ferrous metals, often combined with valuable and ornamental stones, pearls, glass, amber, mother of pearl, bone, etc.
Jewelry art began with jewelry, which was initially made from bone, sea shells, etc. But in the 7th millennium BC. humanity has invented the technique of mechanical processing of native stone. This marked a turning point in the history of jewelry. And in the 5th millennium BC. high-temperature melting of copper in furnaces and casting techniques appeared. Jewelry art is beginning to develop rapidly.
In Kievan Rus, Kyiv became the center of jewelry making, but cities such as Veliky Novgorod, Smolensk, Pskov, Chernigov, Tula, etc. were not much inferior to it.
This work is devoted to an overview of the main jewelry techniques, such as casting, forging, embossing, embossing, niello, gilding, inlay, wire drawing, filigree and granulation. I will not touch upon any territorial features of the execution of these techniques, just as I will not go deeply into their details.
Now I will briefly touch on the historiography of the issue.
In the middle of the 19th century, Ivan Egorovich Zabelin wrote the work “On metal production in Russia until the end of the 17th century,” but this study contained rather little material on the early period.
By the end of the 19th century. so much material had accumulated that it could be generalized; started to generalize it. At first, his attention was drawn only to objects with cloisonne enamel, and later it was extended to all urban jewelry art as a whole.
Together with Kondakov, he wrote a six-volume history of Russian antiquities.
Continuing Zabelin's work, Kondakov very carefully studied enamel and jewelry making, its technique, and the dating of individual items. Kondakov defended Russian culture from attacks from the Normanists and proved the existence of a highly developed Russian craft, but at the same time he often fell into excessive enthusiasm for Byzantine influence.
Many works were published devoted to the craft in Rus', but all of them poorly revealed the art of jewelry and, often, the material in them was very sparing, and sometimes even obviously incorrect.
At the beginning of the 20th century, a work by a Czech Slavist was published, who dedicated a special section to the ancient Russian craft. Chronologically, Niederle's work covers only the pre-Mongol period, and territorially - all Slavic lands. The chapter devoted to the crafts of the Slavs is divided into the following parts:
1. Metal mining.
2. Metal processing (iron, copper, silver, tin).
3. Jewelry making (filigree, granulation, gold work).
4. Glass and stone inlay technique.
5. Enamel.
6. Ceramics.
7. Wood processing.
8. Spinning and weaving.
It is easy to notice that this book already devotes quite a lot of space to jewelry art. But, unfortunately, this work was not noticed by Russian historical literature.
The Ukrainian and Belarusian Academies of Sciences did a lot of work on surveying and studying the ancient settlements. As a result of all this work, dozens of craft workshops were opened. The first work that generalized to a certain extent new material on Russian craft of the 9th - 12th centuries, is an article that indicated specific ways of separating crafts from agriculture and its further development within the Vladimir-Suzdal and Smolensk lands.
In 1936, 40 years after the publication of Volume I of Russian Treasures, the color tables he prepared for Volume II were published, reproducing a number of ancient Russian jewelry. The text for them was written. But Gushchin dealt almost exclusively with the style of things, completely ignoring the technique of their manufacture.
A special technological study of Novgorod jewelry from excavations from 1951 to 1958. work is dedicated. The researcher identified sets of tools and devices of Novgorod jewelers, established their technical techniques, and established the chronology of these techniques.
Of course, over time, research became more and more numerous and contained more and more valuable materials and conclusions, so I will focus on the largest researchers.
In 1958, the book “The Craft of Ancient Rus'” was published. This is a very complete study in which great space is devoted jewelry craft, the author, speaking about individual techniques, sometimes divides the study into 2 parts: urban and rural, noting a number of significant differences between them. Actually, this research is the basis of this work.
In 1981, the book “Jewelry of Ancient Novgorod (X – XV centuries)” was published. This researcher chose to divide her book into chapters based on types of jewelry. The book is quite abundantly supplied with illustrations, which facilitates the perception of the material.
in 1986 he published the book “The Black Case of Ancient Rus'”. Tatyana Ivanovna, like Maria Vladimirovna, divided her book into chapters by type of jewelry. The research often contains new and sufficient full information about the dirty work.
And a year before Makarova’s work, the collection “Ancient Rus'. City. Lock. Village". In this book, I wrote the sixth chapter, dedicated to the craft. Several sheets in this chapter are devoted to the processing of non-ferrous metals. The information is presented concisely, but despite this, it covers a fairly wide range of jewelry making techniques.
Now briefly about the sources of jewelry in Ancient Rus'.
For the times of paganism, the main sources are materials from burial mounds.
With the adoption of Christianity, lavish pagan funerals disappeared.
The mounds are being replaced by treasure troves of treasures buried in the ground during times of danger. The preservation of things and their complexity in treasures is much better than in burial mounds, but treasures as a historical source also have a number of features.
The composition of the treasures is varied; they contain things from different eras, but things that are closer to the time of life of the last owners of the treasure predominate.
No less important than the treasures of jewelry are the excavations of craft workshops.
1. FOUNDRY
One of the most important methods of processing copper, silver and their alloys was casting. With gold, due to its high cost, this technique, which required massive objects, was almost never used except for small crafts. There are no fundamental differences between casting copper, bronze, brass, silver, billon and other alloys. Casting was the main method of metal processing by the village "smiths of copper and silver."
1.1. FOUNDRY IN AN ANCIENT RUSSIAN VILLAGE
Casting is the oldest technique known to the population of Eastern Europe since the Bronze Age. The metal was melted in clay crucibles with the participation of bellows, which increased the temperature of the forge. Then the molten metal (or alloy of metals) was scooped out of the crucibles with a clay spoon, which had a special name “lyachka” (from the verb “to pour”). Lyachki were most often made with a spout for draining molten metal and a clay sleeve into which a wooden handle was inserted.
The bottle with metal was heated over a fire, and then the liquid metal was poured into the casting mold; it was necessary to fill all its recesses with metal. When the poured mold cooled, a metal product was removed from it, exactly replicating the casting mold.
The shapes and volumes of ancient Russian crucibles are varied. The capacity of the crucibles ranged from large volumes of 400 cc to small volumes of 10 cc. Crucibles could be round-bottomed or sharp-bottomed, less often flat-bottomed. The most common were cone-shaped crucibles with a rounded bottom. Crucibles were made of clay mixed with sand and fireclay.
Main types of casting (Po):
1) casting in rigid molds (mainly stone);
2) in plastic forms (clay, sand, molding earth);
3) according to a wax model while maintaining the shape,
4) according to a wax model with loss of the casting mold.
Almost all casting molds were single-sided. Such forms were covered on top with smooth tiles, most often made of limestone. The front side of objects produced in this form was embossed, and the back side (touching the stone tile) was smooth.
Casting could be done in one-sided molds and without a smooth lid, but directly in open molds.
