The first three years of a child's life are characterized by rapid growth and development. However, these three years are far from equal in pace and content.

The first year of life - the period of infancy

A special place in the development of the child of the first year of life is occupied by the period newborns(3-4 weeks after birth), which is characterized by the adaptability of the child's body to the conditions of extrauterine life. During this period, the main functions of the body are in a state of unstable equilibrium. This is due to the morphological and functional incompleteness of the structure of organs and systems, and primarily the central and peripheral nervous systems. During this period, the processes of inhibition prevail over the processes of excitation (the newborn sleeps 20-22 hours a day). A manifestation of the incompleteness of the development of the body of a newborn is various borderline conditions bordering on pathology: physiological jaundice, physiological weight loss, physiological mastitis, uric acid infarction, etc. A newborn child is especially vulnerable and requires the most careful care, compliance with the necessary hygiene conditions its content, mandatory breastfeeding.

For infancy(from the neonatal period to 12 months) is characterized by:

The rapid pace of physical development - in the first 4-5 months, the child doubles, and by 12 months more than triples body weight at birth; growth increases by 23-25 ​​cm per year;

The rapid pace of neuropsychic development: from the first months, the activity of all sense organs develops, positive emotions are formed, by the year the child can walk independently, preparatory stages speech development;

The development of higher mental functions begins: attention, memory, thinking;

The efficiency of the nervous system is still small, the duration of wakefulness increases from 30-40 minutes in 1 month to 2.5-3 hours by the end of the year;

Some relative functional weakness of organs and systems against the background of their intensive growth and development, which can lead to an increased frequency of acute diseases, to health deviations (exudative diathesis, rickets, anemia, various eating disorders - dyspepsia, malnutrition);

Great vulnerability of the body and low resistance to various acute diseases due to the weakening of the initial passive immunity received from the mother, and the lack of acquired.

From 1 year to 3 years - Preschool age

The pre-preschool age is characterized by the gradual improvement of all functional capabilities. child's body.

Secondyear child's life occupies a special place in this period in connection with the beginning of the formation of complex brain functions, the rapid development of speech. Higher nervous activity improves, the limit of its working capacity increases (by the beginning of the second year, the child can be awake for 5 hours in a row), conditional connections are easily and quickly formed, speech develops, sensory perception improves (distinguishing shape, size, color, etc.).

By the age of two, the child walks well, movements occupy a large place in his life. However, the rapidly emerging mental processes, skills and habits are still in their infancy, so they are not stable enough. In addition, children of the second year of life are easily excitable and difficult to adapt to any changes in living conditions, they are distinguished by a great vulnerability of the central nervous system. The resistance of the child's body to various pathogenic influences is still sharply reduced, therefore, at this age, children are more susceptible than children of the first year of life to acute diseases.

Onthirdyear of life, the intensity of physical development slows down in a child, which is so characteristic of the first two years. The working capacity of the nervous system increases (the duration of wakefulness increases to 6-6.5 hours). There is a further development of speech, sensory, orienting-cognitive activity, movements are being improved. The course of development of a child of the third year of life depends on the level reached by him by the age of two. At the same time, as experts note, large changes in the psyche of children in the third year of life, as well as in mental development associated with language development. Vocabulary is growing rapidly. Speech at this age becomes the main means of communication with adults and with each other.

The resistance of the body to the harmful effects of the external environment and the physical endurance of children gradually increase. Characterizing children early age, experts say that a child at birth cannot pronounce a single articulate sound. In the first months of life, during cooing (the stage of pre-speech development of the child, following the cry and preceding babbling), the child's articulation apparatus improves, and from 7-8 months, hearing the sounds of a human voice, he begins to pronounce repeated syllables. At 1 year old, a child forms the first 10-12 words from these babbling syllables. Then there comes a period, as it were, of some kind of calm - a slow increase in new words. During the first half of the 2nd year there is a rapid accumulation of understood words, the establishment of connections between the heard word and the subject. The number of words that the child actively uses increases slightly, by the age of 1 year 5 months he has only 30-40 words. At the age of 1 year 5 months - 1 year 7 months there is a rapid jump (a rapid increase in new words), by 2 years the active dictionary is approximately 300-400 words. In the 3rd year there is a further growth rate of the vocabulary (by the age of 3 it is 1200-1300 words), improvement in the quality of speech - pronunciation, construction, comprehension.

The rapid pace of morphological and functional development of all organs and systems, the incompleteness of immunity contribute to the fact that young children fall ill from the most minor nutritional disorders and hygiene care, upon contact with any infection. At the same time, each acute illness suffered can lead to the development of chronic diseases, entail a lag in the physical or neuropsychic development of the child, between which there is a very large interdependence and unity.

In providing normal development and the full health of young children, the role of an adult is huge. The kid still cannot organize his life outside of close contacts with adults, therefore his health and development is ensured only when performing the tasks of physical, mental, moral and aesthetic education.

From 3 to 6-7 years - Preschool age

Preschool age is characterized by the beginning of the independent existence of the child, the expansion of contacts with the outside world. During this period, further morphological growth and functional improvement of all organs and systems continues. By the end of the preschool period, the change of milk teeth begins. Intensive development continues intellectual abilities child. At this age, injuries easily occur due to the great curiosity of the baby and the lack of own experience. Therefore, the correct organization of the environment in children's institution and at home, the introduction of elements of labor and social education into the process of education are the best remedy prevention of possible defects in the development and health of the child preschool age. We must not forget that children at this age are still characterized by increased vulnerability, they are easily exposed to acute childhood infections and other diseases.

One of the main tasks solved by a preschool institution is the preparation of children for entering school. Studies have shown that for some children (10-12%) the regimen and program elementary school difficult, they do not cope with the requirements that the school makes of them. The problem of functional readiness (maturity) of individual organs and systems of the child's body to meet the requirements of the school (“school maturity”) is currently being dealt with by teachers, psychologists, and doctors.

It has been proven that some so-called "immature" children do not fully master the curriculum, while others cope with the load, but with excessive stress on the body, which leads to various health disorders, in particular to neuroses. Children who do not master the skills and abilities provided by the program in a timely manner kindergarten, i.e. immature, the educator sends to the doctor. Taking into account his recommendations, the teacher conducts individual lessons with such children. Thus, in the implementation of the tasks of preparing children for school, the joint efforts of doctors and teachers are important.

Plays independently, shows imagination. Likes to please others; imitates peers. Plays simple group games.

Learns to run, walk on toes, maintain balance on one leg. Squatting down, jumping down the bottom step. Opens the drawer and topples its contents. Plays with sand and clay. Opens lids, uses scissors. Paint with your finger. Strings beads.

VISUAL-MOTOR COORDINATION:
It can rotate the phone disk with a finger, draw dashes, and reproduce simple shapes. Cuts with scissors.

Looking at pictures. Disassembles and folds the pyramid without taking into account the size of the rings. Selects a paired image according to the sample.

MENTAL DEVELOPMENT:
Listen to simple stories. Understands the meaning of some abstract words (big-small, wet-dry, etc.). Asks questions "What is it?". Begins to understand the other person's point of view. Answers "no" to absurd questions. An initial idea of ​​quantity develops (more-less, full-empty).

SPEECH UNDERSTANDING:
There is a rapid increase in vocabulary. Understands complex sentences like: "When we get home, I will...". Understands questions like: "What do you have in your hands?". Listens to "how" and "why" explanations. Performs a two-step instruction such as: "First we wash our hands, then we will have dinner."

Age features of the development of children 3-4 years old

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Likes to give toys and take them from others. Likes to communicate with children and adults. Develop cooperative skills. Likes to help adults.

GENERAL MOTOR SKILLS, MOTOR HANDS:
Throws the ball over the head. Grabs a rolling ball, descends stairs using alternately one or the other leg. Jumps on one leg. Stands on one leg for 10 minutes. Maintains balance while swinging. Holds a pencil with fingers. Collects and builds from 9 cubes.

Outlines, copies a cross, reproduces shapes, including the shape of a hexagon.

PERCEPTION AND OBJECT-GAME ACTIVITY:
Disassembles and folds a six-part nesting doll. Lowers figurines into slots through targeted trials. Constructs from cubes by imitation. Folds a split picture from 2-3 parts by trial.

SPEECH DEVELOPMENT:
Intensive development of speech. Defines color, shape, texture, taste, using definition words. Knows the purpose of the main objects. Understands degrees of comparisons (nearest, largest). Determines the gender of people by role in the family (he is dad, she is mom). Understands tense, uses past and present tense. Counts to five.

SPEECH UNDERSTANDING:
Understands the names of colors: "Give me a red ball." Listens to long tales and stories. Executes a two-part instruction ("Give me a red die and a blue ball").

Age features of the development of children 4-5 years old

PERCEPTION AND OBJECT-GAME ACTIVITY:
Disassembles and folds a three-piece and four-piece matryoshka by trying on or visual correlation. Collects a pyramid taking into account the size of the rings by visual correlation. Adds a split picture from 2 and 3 parts by visual correlation.

MEMORY:
Performs an order in the form of 2-3 consecutive actions; at the request of an adult, remembers up to 5 words.

ATTENTION:
Engaged in interesting activities for 15-20 minutes.

SPEECH:
Uses generalizing words; names animals and their cubs, professions of people, parts of objects. Retells familiar fairy tales with the help of adults, recites short poems by heart.

MATHEMATICS:
Uses the words many and one in speech, calls a circle, triangle, square, ball, cube. Able to see geometric shapes in surrounding objects. Correctly names the seasons, parts of the day. Distinguishes between right and left hand.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT, MOTOR HANDS, GRAPHIC SKILLS:
Draws straight horizontal and vertical lines, paints simple shapes. Copies uppercase printed letters. He draws a simple house (a square and a roof), a person (2-3 parts of the body). Folds paper more than 1 time. Strings beads of medium size on a thick fishing line or wire. Identifies items in a bag by touch. Jumps on one leg, alternately on one and the other leg, walks on a log. Throws the ball up and catches it with both hands. Sculpts from plasticine, laces shoes.

Age features of the development of children 5-6 years old

GENERAL MOTOR SKILLS:
He jumps well, runs, jumps over a rope, jumps alternately on one and the other leg, runs on his toes. Riding a two-wheeled bicycle, skating.

VISUAL-MOTOR COORDINATION:
Carefully cut out pictures. Writes letters and numbers. Adds missing details to the picture. Hitting a nail with a hammer. Reproduces geometric shapes according to the sample. Outlines the drawings along the contour, shades the shapes.

SPEECH DEVELOPMENT:
Uses synonyms, antonyms in speech; words denoting the materials from which objects are made (paper, wood, etc.). By the age of 6, he knows and is able to write printed letters of the alphabet. Determines the number of syllables in words, the number of sounds in words, determines the place of sound in a word (beginning, middle, end of a word). Defines stressed syllables, vowels. Understands the meaning of words sound, syllable, word. Distinguishes between vowels and consonants (letters), hard and soft consonants. Expressively tells poems, retells short stories.

Writes numbers from 0 to 10, correlates the number with the number of objects. He knows how to make equality out of inequality. Can write and use mathematical symbols. Able to lay out items (10 items) from largest to smallest and vice versa. Able to draw geometric shapes in a notebook in a cage. Highlights details in objects that are similar to these figures. Oriented on a sheet of paper.
Names the days of the week, the sequence of parts of the day, the seasons. Gives them a description.

MENTAL DEVELOPMENT:
Features of memory: Show the child in turn 10 pictures. The time of demonstration of each picture is 1-2 seconds. Normally, the child remembers 5-6 items out of 10. Read the child 10 words: table, notebook, clock, horse, apple, dog, window, sofa, pencil, spoon. Ask him to repeat the words. The child must remember at least 4-5 words.
Gives his name, surname, address, names of parents and their professions.

Age features of the development of children 6-7 years old
School readiness

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATIONS:
Determines the time by the clock. Names the colors of the rainbow. Names the days of the week, parts of the day, seasons, months. Can write numbers from 0 to 10, solves examples.

MEMORY:
Have your child memorize a series of numbers by ear (for example, 5 8 3 9 1 2 2 0). The norm for children 6-7 years old is the repetition of 5-6 digits.
Memorization of 10 words (for example: year, elephant, ball, soap, salt, noise, hand, floor, spring, son). The child listens to this series of words and repeats those that he remembered. After one presentation, a child of 6-7 years old must remember at least 5 words out of 10, after 3-4 readings he names 9-10 words, after 1 hour he forgets no more than 2 words.

THINKING:
Knows how to classify objects, name similarities and differences between objects and phenomena.

SPEECH DEVELOPMENT:
Independently reads the text and transmits its content. Can write simple words.

CONCEPTS ABOUT THE WORLD:
It is good if the child has ideas about nature - about wild and domestic animals, predatory and herbivores, about wintering and migratory birds; about herbs, shrubs and trees, about garden and field flowers, about the fruits of plants; about the phenomena of nature. A store of geographical knowledge is also needed - about cities and countries, rivers, seas and lakes, about planets. The child should be familiar with the professions of people, sports.

Sometimes parents think that if a child can read, write and count before school, then success is guaranteed to him. However, it is equally important that such cognitive processes as attention, memory, thinking, imagination, fine motor skills.

Psychological readiness for school includes the following components:

1. personal readiness
   includes the formation of a child's readiness to accept a new social position - the position of a student who has a range of rights and obligations. This personal readiness is expressed in the child's attitude to school, to learning activities, to teachers, to himself. Ready for schooling is a child who is attracted to school not by its external side, but by the opportunity to acquire new knowledge. Personal readiness also implies a certain level of development of the emotional sphere. Back to top schooling the child should achieve relatively good emotional stability, against which the development and course of educational activities is possible.
2. intellectual readiness
   presupposes that the child has an outlook, a stock of specific knowledge. Analytical thinking should be developed (the ability to highlight the main features, similarities and differences of objects, the ability to reproduce a sample), arbitrary memory, spoken language, the development of fine motor skills of the hand and hand-eye coordination.
3. socio-psychological readiness
   this component of readiness includes the formation of those qualities that allow you to communicate with other children, the teacher. The child must be able to enter the children's society, act together with others, be able to obey the interests and customs of the children's group.

Age features development of preschool children

All kids are completely different. And at the same time, there are features of physiological and mental development that are characteristic of a particular age. What are we talking about? For example, babies who are one year old begin to walk and try to master the first words, five-year-olds are cute why, children at the age of ten look at the world and those around them with a different, almost adult, look. Naturally, each age has its own advantages and disadvantages, limitations, losses. But let's look at the main age characteristics of children that distinguish this or that group.

The main children's age periods are considered to be:

1. infancy (0-1 year old)
2. early age (1-2 years)
3. preschool age (3-5 years)
4. primary school age (6-11 years old)

Infancy is characterized by emotional communication, which at this stage is the leading activity. Everything that a newborn baby does happens unconsciously, on an instinctive level: he sucks at the breast or a bottle, cries when he is hungry or cold, makes movements with his arms or legs. It will take quite a bit, literally a few months, and he will consciously smile, say his first “aha” in response to his mother’s smile, purposefully reach for the toy. An important point in his mental development is the active functioning of the visual and auditory analyzers. Having reached the age of six or eight months, the baby will begin to crawl and explore the world around him more actively. Now he is already able to establish a connection between the word denoting an object and the object itself. The first words appear in his dictionary. By the end of the first year, the baby shows a desire to communicate with other people. What does he now show who he likes and who he prefers to avoid.

A two-year-old baby is already capable of independent actions: he eats with a spoon, he can put on panties. He is not bored with his toys, because he already has a tendency to fantasize. He enjoys simple group games. Children of two or three years old are very mobile: they run, jump, walk on their toes, they can maintain balance on one leg. Buy baby Finger paint! You see, he will like this occupation.

A two-year-old kid is already “writing” letters in full: he leaves dashes, circles, squiggles on paper. By the age of three, "calligraphy" is improving, and drawings are becoming more and more recognizable. Here is the sun, here is the house, and this is a flower. Praise the baby! Let him see that he was able to please you. In the future, this will play an important role and will not allow the baby to close in on himself and hide his talents.

At the age of two or three years, children show interest in the book and the printed word. They enjoy listening to poems, fairy tales, nursery rhymes. Many of them retell what they heard, sometimes they compose themselves. True, it happens that some kids are just now starting to talk and replenish their vocabulary. To rule out whether the child has any developmental disorders, contact a speech therapist and psychologist. They will let you know if there is cause for concern.

After three years, children begin to "yasamkat". Every now and then you hear: "I myself"! And this is quite natural. Now the kid has realized that he is a person, that he can like something, but not something. Right now, it is important for parents to explain to the baby that in life there are situations when “you don’t want to”, but you “need”, that everyone has their own responsibilities. Believe me, at this age the baby is already able to understand this.

At the age of three, children are still active and inquisitive, mastering a whole system of various skills and abilities.

At the age of four, the baby becomes his mother's assistant. He tries very hard, performing the task entrusted to him, and is very happy when he is praised. His gross and fine motor skills are improving. He easily throws the ball over his head, goes down the stairs, using alternately one or the other leg, jumps on one leg, maintains balance while swinging on a swing, traces along the contours, copies simple images. At this age, kids are good at making decisions. logical tasks. Place three colored cubes in front of the child (for example, red, yellow and blue). Tell him: “Give me a cube that is neither red nor blue” or “give me a cube the color of the sun.” The task can be made more difficult. For example, "give me a cube of the same color as our curtains" (let's say red). As a rule, kids easily solve this. A four-year-old easily masters the degrees of comparisons (the closest, the largest), understands time (uses the past and present). At least count to ten. Some children already know how to solve elementary examples like "1 + 1", "2 + 1", etc. As a rule, a four-year-old child is able to see geometric shapes in surrounding objects, correctly names the seasons, and distinguishes between the right and left hands.

At the age of five or six, children realize that soon they will go to school. They are especially proud that they are already such “adults”, and this motivates them to behave accordingly. They show independence and initiative. They argue with adults, and sometimes frankly create conflict situations if what they want does not coincide with reality.

The child's skills and abilities are becoming more complicated: now he already knows how to ride a two-wheeled bicycle or skate, carefully cut out pictures, write letters and numbers, assemble complex puzzles, and fill in the missing details for the picture. Also improved speech development child: he uses synonyms, antonyms, words denoting the materials from which objects are made (paper, wood, etc.). By the age of six, the baby knows and can write printed letters of the alphabet. Determines the number of syllables in words, the number of sounds in words, determines the place of sound in a word (beginning, middle, end of a word). Expressively tells poems, retells short stories.

The leading activity of a preschooler is role-playing game, in which behavior is formed, mediated by the image of another person.

Children 6-7 years old have their own age characteristics. Having become a first grader, such a child has moved to a significantly new stage of development. In the process of educational activity, the child not only acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, but also learns to set himself learning objectives(goals), find ways to assimilate and apply knowledge, control and evaluate their actions.

Such a baby is able to memorize a series of numbers by ear (for example, 2 4 8 3 5 1 9). The norm is if the child repeats either everything, or makes a mistake in 1-2 digits. Can also memorize 10 simple words. For example: chair, elephant, ball, floor, soap, salt, noise, hand, spring, son. After the first listening, the child must remember at least 5 words, after 3-4 readings by adults - 9-10. Many children of this age independently read the text and convey its content. At this age, the child has ideas about nature and its phenomena. Replenishes the stock of geographical knowledge (about cities and countries, rivers, seas and lakes, about planets). Knows the professions of people, sports.

With each subsequent year, the skills and abilities of the child are improved, knowledge is replenished, the experience of communicating with others is enriched. From 11-12 years old, a fundamentally new age stage begins - adolescence, which is characterized by its own characteristics, because the child is already becoming an adult for real. As a rule, adolescence is considered a "crisis". First of all, this is due to the biological changes occurring in the child's body and puberty.

Based on the above, do not forget that each age has its own characteristics, individual opportunities open up and therefore a special pedagogical approach is needed to educate children of a certain age. Moreover, keep in mind that raising children should not be formal. Parents should build deep relationships by communicating with kids (taking into account age potential), listening to their needs, taking a direct part in the experience that children are concerned about.

Remember, no matter how old your child is, he is a full-fledged member of the family, and not your property at all. Respect the child, encourage, and then a creative, successful, self-confident, purposeful person will grow out of him.

The age of 5-6 years is the senior preschool age. It is a very important age in the development of the cognitive sphere of the child, intellectual and personal. It can be called the basic age, when many personal aspects are laid in the child, all the moments of the formation of the “I” position are worked out. It is 90% of the laying of all personality traits of the child is laid at the age of 5-6 years. A very important age when we can understand what a person will be like in the future.

At 5-6 years old, a child, like a sponge, absorbs all cognitive information. It has been scientifically proven that a child at this age remembers as much material as he will never remember later in his life. At this age, the child is interested in everything related to the outside world, expanding his horizons. the best way To get scientific information is reading a children's encyclopedia, in which any information about the world around is clearly, scientifically, accessible to the child. The child will get an idea about the cosmos, the ancient world, the human body, animals and plants, countries, inventions and much more.

This period is called sensitive for the development of all cognitive processes: attention, perception, thinking, memory, imagination. For the development of all these aspects is complicated game material, it becomes logical, intellectual, when the child has to think and reason.

Good at playing word games , since the child already uses synonyms, antonyms in his speech, distinguishes between vowels and consonants, can determine the number of syllables in words, the place of sound in a word (beginning, middle, end of a word).

Constructor well develops logical thinking. Here important point is folding according to the pattern - sample, starting with simple patterns. Cubes, various puzzles, mosaics must be laid out according to the picture, focusing on color, shape, size.

Develop all analyzers - visual, logical, verbal - variouslogical tables.All tasks based on the specific, thematic classification make the child's attention, visual perception and thinking work. For example, the game"The Fourth Extra"- the pictures show various objects, such as a bus, truck, trolley bus and tram. Of the four items, one is redundant. The child must think and choose this extra item and say why it is superfluous. The child still has to name the remaining three objects in one word (in our case, passenger transport). And there can be a great many such pictures, united in a group according to a common feature. The child should have a broad outlook, be able to analyze the situation and explain, argue his choice.

"Put it in order."A number of illustrations are offered, related to one topic, but decomposed incorrectly. The child must determine which of the illustrations depicts what happened earlier or later - that is, put it in order. Here the child must see the sequence, follow the logical pattern and justify.

"Who is more observant?"The child is given a table-exercise for memory, where objects and their schematic representation - symbols can be drawn. Some time is given for memorization, then the child must remember the sequence and reproduce the tablet as it should be.

Having correctly solved the exercise, the child rejoices, feels self-confidence and the desire to win. There are children who give up, do not believe in their own strength, and the task of parents or a psychologist is to develop in the child the desire to win. Importantly, the child must know that "I can." In such logic games, the personal aspect of the preschooler is also traced.

The main thing in the development of children 5-6 years old is their cognitive development, broadening their horizons. And all games aimed at this will give a good result. Do not answer in one word - "yes" or "no". Answer the child in detail, ask his opinion, make him think and reason. Why is it winter now? Prove it. Why can't you make a fire in the forest? Justify. Children have a lot of unconscious information in their heads, sometimes they cannot accumulate it, sort it out. And the task of adults is to help them with this. An important indicator of this age of 5-6 years is the child's evaluative attitude towards himself and others. Children can be critical of some of their shortcomings, they can give personal characteristics to their peers, notice the relationship between an adult and an adult or an adult and a child. But parents continue to be an example for children. If parents carry positive information, if the child has a good soul, there is no fear, resentment, anxiety, then any information (personal and intellectual) can be put into the child.

Take care of the psyche of children!!!

(* Studenikin M. Ya. A book about the health of children. - M .: Medicine, 1986.) Printed with abbreviations.

Children born healthy develop normally only when proper upbringing and well-organized care for them.

The care, upbringing and feeding of a child in the first year of life is determined by the characteristics of the development of the child's body. It would be a big mistake to consider a child as a reduced copy of an adult, because his body differs in the structure and functional features of the internal organs. Let's talk about this in more detail.

The first year of life is the most responsible. During this period, the foundation is laid for the health of the future person, his physical and mental development.

From the moment of birth and cutting of the umbilical cord, the newborn ceases direct connection with the mother's body, the neonatal period begins, which lasts one month. During this time, the baby adapts to a completely new environment for him. There is a certain restructuring of his body. Some organs and systems already acted in utero (heart, kidneys, endocrine glands, hematopoietic organs, etc.), others (respiratory, digestive organs, etc.) begin to function only after the birth of a child.

A feature of the newborn is the presence of an umbilical cord remnant in which three large vessels pass: two arteries and a vein. After cutting the umbilical cord, the vessels do not close immediately, as a result of which there is a threat of infection through them. umbilical wound also often serves as an “entrance gate” for pathogenic microbes, so it is important to monitor the cleanliness of the child’s body, bathe him regularly and, on the advice of a doctor, use nurse treat the umbilical wound.

Leather in a newly born child, it is covered with a grayish-white primordial lubricant, which protects the skin in the prenatal period from exposure amniotic fluid and facilitates the passage of the child through the birth canal of the mother. Sometimes the grease is yellowish or greenish in color. On the shoulders and back of the newborn there are soft fluffy hair.

The skin of a newborn is delicate, thin, so it is easily vulnerable and prone to various diseases.

Sometimes a baby is born with significant lamellar peeling (fine peeling can be observed in almost every child). In children born to mothers with certain diseases, in addition to peeling, there are skin cracks through which infectious agents can enter the body.

The sebaceous glands work hard in a newborn. The sweat glands are somewhat underdeveloped. The nails of full-term babies are well developed, and the hair on the head different lengths, density and color.

The subcutaneous fat layer in the fetus is deposited mainly in the last 1 1/2 -2 months of intrauterine life and is well expressed by the time of birth. Adipose tissue of the newborn is very dense. An intensive increase in the subcutaneous fat layer in children occurs in the first 6 months.

Skeleton. Bone tissue contains few salts of lime; instead of some bones, there are cartilages.

When the child passes through the birth canal of the mother, the bones of the skull can "go in" for each other. Due to this, the size of the head is reduced, which greatly facilitates childbirth. This deformation of the skull bones in a child often persists for some time after birth.

During the first year of a baby's life, the bones of the skull are not fused together. Soft areas remain at the junctions of three or four bones - the so-called fontanelles. Above the middle of the forehead is a "large fontanel", through which you can feel the "shocks" - the beating of the cerebral vessels.

Gradually, small gaps between the bones of the skull (sutures) ossify, and the fontanelles decrease and are completely covered by bone tissue by the 9-14th month.

The newborn's head is large; its circumference is 34-36 cm, and by the year it reaches 45-46 cm. The length of the arms and legs is the same. Compared to the height of a child, the legs are relatively short. The body is long. The spine is primarily made up of cartilage and, unlike the adult spine, does not have curves. The chest is barrel-shaped (and not flat, as in an adult) shape. The ribs are also not yet ossified, consist mainly of cartilage, are very supple and soft. The ribs are attached to the spine not obliquely, as in adults, but almost horizontally, therefore, when breathing, the chest does not expand enough and falls off a little.

musculature poorly developed. The body of a newborn, as it were, seeks to maintain an intrauterine position with arms and legs bent and brought to the body. When you unbend them, you feel some resistance (the so-called physiological muscle hypertension), which gradually disappears with age.

Thermal regulation of the newborn is less perfect than in older children. Body temperature is unstable and can fluctuate depending on environmental conditions. It should be known that newborns tolerate overheating worse than cooling.

Respiratory system. The nasal passages of the newborn are narrow, the cartilages of the larynx and trachea are thin. The mucous membrane lining them is prone to swelling. The lungs are poor in elastic fibers. In the act of breathing, the rib muscles and abdominal muscles are almost not involved, as is the case in adults. Breathing, which is mainly carried out due to the contraction and relaxation of the abdominal obstruction (diaphragm), is not deep enough, uneven and rapid (48-60 times per minute). The need for oxygen per 1 kg of body weight is much greater than that of an adult. At the same time, the volume of the lungs is small and breathing is shallow (this explains the relatively high respiratory rate of newborns). In diseases of the lungs, one can always expect severe disorders of the act of breathing itself.

A child, like an adult, also breathes through the pores of the skin, and since the skin surface of a child relative to its mass is larger than that of an adult, skin respiration occurs more intensively.

Heart in young children it is almost 0.9% of body weight (in an adult - only 0.5%). The heart muscle is thin and tender. The pulse is 120-140 per minute, very variable (for example, if the baby screams, then it can reach 160-200!). The rate of blood flow is higher than that of an adult. The relative amount of blood (per 1 kg of body weight) circulating in the circulatory system is greater than in an adult, so the circulatory organs in a newborn function with considerable stress. During the first year of life, the heart grows rapidly and by the year its mass doubles.

Gastrointestinal tract. The oral cavity of a newborn is relatively small. The language is big. The salivary glands secrete little saliva. Rarely, a child has teeth at birth. Although they are weak, they interfere with suckling and must be removed in the first days. The mucous membrane of the oral cavity is bright red due to the large number of blood vessels and their superficial location. On the hard palate, yellowish-white dots are visible along the midline - the so-called Bohn's nodules. On the outer side of the mucous membrane of the lips, “pads” are expressed, which, like the sucking rollers, participate in the act of sucking. The activity, strength of sucking movements in a child serve as an indicator not only of his “maturity”, but also of his state of health: the first symptoms of any disease in a newborn are sluggish sucking or refusal of the breast.

Esophagus the child is small - its length is only 10-11 cm. The stomach is located almost vertically, so milk from it easily returns back to the esophagus and oral cavity. The emptying of the stomach in the first days is slowed down, the sensitivity of its mucous membrane is increased. The muscular and elastic tissue in the walls of the stomach and intestines is not sufficiently developed, as a result of which the stomach and intestines are easily overfilled with gases (and an excessive amount of them is formed in violation of feeding or diseases of the child). The intestines of a newborn are relatively longer than those of an adult, and its walls are easily passable for microbes and poisonous products of their vital activity - toxins.

The nervous regulation of the gastrointestinal tract is not fully developed, as a result of which the necessary functional coherence between the various parts of the digestive tract is weakened. Therefore, newborns often have all kinds of deviations from the normal process of digestion: regurgitation, vomiting, bloating, frequent stools, etc. It should be remembered that some children swallow a lot of air when sucking. In the future, leaving the stomach, the air carries the milk out with it.

In the first days after birth, the child's primordial feces are excreted - meconium, which is formed from the 4th month of intrauterine life. Meconium is a dark olive, viscous, odorless mass consisting of secretions from the digestive tract, epithelium, and filtrate from swallowed amniotic fluid. During the first 4 days of life, all meconium is usually passed. Then the so-called transitional, greenish-brown feces of a mucous nature appear, and after another 1-2 days - normal bowel movements 1-2, rarely 3 times a day.

When breastfeeding, the color of the feces soon becomes light yellow, acquires a sour smell and a mushy texture. If the baby receives cow's milk, then the feces are denser, gray-yellow in color, look like putty and have an unpleasant odor.

Urinary system. The kidneys are well developed. In the first days, the amount of urine excreted ranges from 6 to 55 ml per day. The first portions of urine are colorless or have a yellowish tint. In the following days, the urine becomes cloudy, more intensely colored, and on the days of the greatest drop in body weight, it is often brown. A large number of uric acid salts can be identified by the reddish color of the sediment and by the reddish-brown spots remaining on the diapers. From the 4-5th day, urine becomes lighter and more transparent.

Until the 3rd day of life, the number of urination is small (4-5 times a day), but by the end of the first and by the middle of the second week it increases to 20-25 per day. Capacity Bladder the newborn is small.

The external genital organs are already formed by the birth of the child. In boys, the testicles are in the scrotum, and in girls, the large labia cover the small ones.

Nervous system. The brain of a newborn is large, but its sections, the nerve cells that make up the brain tissue, are underdeveloped. The spinal cord in a newborn is more developed.

A child is born only with unconditional congenital reflexes. Such reflexes as swallowing, sucking, blinking, protective (reaction to pain, hot, cold), grasping, supports, stepping, crawling and others are well expressed in a healthy newborn. By the time of birth, all receptors - perceiving irritations, nerve endings in the child's body - are ready for elementary functioning. The newborn reacts to bright light (the ability to fix the gaze develops somewhat later). Hearing is reduced, but newborns react to a strong sound. Taste, olfactory, tactile receptors work well.

As the child grows, develops his central nervous system and interacts with the environment, new reflexes ("habits") arise, which are already conditional.

Protective functions. It is known that the body of a newborn is immune to a number of children's infectious diseases to which he received immunity from his mother. At the same time, the newborn does not have sufficient protective forces against many microbes - staphylococcus, streptococcus, pneumococcus, Escherichia coli. This leads to the fact that at the slightest error in care and nutrition, children get sick.

By the end of the first month, the neonatal period ends, infancy sets in, lasting until the end of the first year and characterized by increased growth and development of all organs and systems.

The body weight and height of the newborn largely depend on his gender, the constitution of the parents, the number of pregnancies in the mother. Children born from a second pregnancy, as a rule, have more body weight and height than children from the first pregnancy.

The height of a full-term baby is on average 50 cm (48-52 cm), and boys are usually slightly longer than girls. Children grow most vigorously in the first three months, when the monthly increase is 3 cm. Up to six months, the increase is 2-2.5 cm per month, then -2 cm and from nine months to 1 year 1.5 cm. Thus, for in the first year of life, the child grows by 25 cm. If we take into account that in the future growth increases by about 5 cm per year, then one can easily imagine how intense the metabolic processes in a child are during the first year of life.

A full-term baby at birth has a body weight of 3000-3500 g. In boys, it is usually somewhat larger than in girls.

The laws of weight gain are the same as for height, the younger the age, the greater the increase. For the first month of life, the child on average adds 600 g, for the second and third 800 g each, and then each subsequent month is 50 g less than the previous one. By 41/2 months of life, body weight doubles, and triples by the year.

Teeth erupt after 6 months, and by the year the child should have 8 teeth.

Functional features of the structure of the body of preschool children

1. Nervous system

Brain. In preschoolers, it is shorter and wider than in schoolchildren and adults. Up to 4 years, the brain grows almost evenly in length, width and height, and at 4-7 years of age, its height increases especially intensively. Separate lobes of the brain grow unevenly: the frontal and parietal lobes grow faster than the temporal and especially the occipital. By about 7 years of age, the weight of the brain corresponds to 4/5 of the brain weight in adults.

Changes in the chemical composition of the brain, and the content of water in it. In a newborn, water is 91.5%, in an 8-year-old child - 86.0%. Improving the functions of the brain (especially the mechanism of inhibition) leads to a decrease in the level of metabolism per 1 kg of body weight, the appearance of an inhibitory effect of the nervous system on cardiac and respiratory activity, an increase in the period of wakefulness and a decrease in the period of sleep. The neurons of the brain are already taking the form of an adult, and the furrows and convolutions by the age of 7 have the appearance of an adult.

In general, the nervous system of children aged 3-7 years is still weak, therefore, one must take into account their slight excitability and be very careful about them: do not give long-term unbearable loads, avoid excessive fatigue, since excitation processes at this age prevail over inhibition processes.

1. Sensory systems of the body

This is a part of the nervous system, consisting of many specialized perceiving receptors, as well as intermediate and central nerve cells and the nerve fibers connecting them.

Olfactory sensory system.Up to 5-6 years, the sensitivity of the analyzer increases rapidly, and then it constantly decreases.

Taste sensory system.Sensitivity to taste stimuli rises to adult levels by age 6.

visual sensory system.Vision is coordinated, the nerve centers of the lacrimal reflex are formed. Accommodation in children is more pronounced than in adults. The elasticity of the lens decreases with age, and accommodation decreases accordingly (in children, some of its violations occur). So, in preschoolers, due to more flat shape farsightedness is very common in the lens: at 3 years old - in 82% of children, and myopia - in 2.5%. With age, this ratio changes (the number of myopic increases, reaching 11% by the age of 14-16). By the age of 5, the mass of the eyeball increases by 70% (from 2.3 g).

auditory sensory system.The formation of the auditory analyzer continues, by the age of 4-5 children distinguish sounds with a difference of even 3/4 and 1/2 musical tones. Hearing acuity in children aged 6–9 years is 17–24 dB (in adults – 10–12 dB).

vestibular sensory system. It participates in the regulation of the position of the body in space, ensures the coordination of absolutely all human movements - from locomotor to the most complex labor and sports motor skills. The improvement of all departments of the motor analyzer up to 6-7 years is intensively going on. From 3 to 7-8 years, maturation of the subcortical sections of the motor analyzer and its cortical zones occurs, but excitability is lower than in adults.

Somatosensory system (musculoskeletal system) -temperature, tactile and pain. Skin more and more thicken, become more elastic, the number of blood vessels in them decreases, the skin becomes more resistant to mechanical stress. The main feature of the skin of children and adolescents is that its surface is relatively larger than that of adults. The absolute surface area in children is smaller than in adults and increases with age. For 1 kg of body weight there is the following skin surface area, for example: in a newborn - 704 cm 2 , for a preschooler 5-6 years old - 456cm 2 , for an adult - 221cm 2 . This means that the heat transfer of the body of children is much greater: they can easily overheat or supercool. High heat transfer also causes high heat generation, which is higher in children and adolescents per unit of body weight than in adults. Over a long period of development, thermoregulatory processes change. The regulation of skin temperature according to the adult type is established by the age of 9.

Pain sensitivity increases from 5 to 6-7 years.

1. Endocrine system

These are the endocrine glands - the thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas (insulin), adrenal glands, sex glands, pituitary gland, epiphysis. They do not have excretory ducts and secrete the secrets formed in them directly into the internal environment - blood, lymph, tissue and cerebrospinal fluid. This feature distinguishes them from the glands of external secretion (digestive) and excretory glands (kidneys and sweat), which secrete the products they form into the external environment.

Thyroid.The largest gland, regulates metabolism. The mass of the gland at 3 years is 5.0 g, by 5 years - 5.5 g, by 5–8 years - 9.5 g.

Parathyroid glands.Its hormones stimulate the function of cells that destroy bone tissue (transition of calcium into the blood). In the first 7 years, their activity is maximum, and the total mass increases by 5 years by 2 times.

Goiter (thymus) gland (thymus).Ensures optimal functioning of the immune system. With age, the size and structure of the gland change greatly: up to 1 year, its mass is 13 g; period 1-5 years -23 g; period 6-10 years - 26 g. With age, glandular tissue is gradually replaced by adipose tissue.

adrenal glands . The growth of glands occurs up to 30 years. The highest production of glucocorticoids is observed at 1-3 years (stress reactions). At 3-8 years old, the main growth of the medulla occurs.

Pituitary gland (lower cerebral appendage).This is the main endocrine gland, affecting the work of all endocrine glands and many functions of the body. The pituitary gland is located in the Turkish saddle, directly under the brain. Weight: 0.55-0.65 g - in adults, 0.1-0.15 g - newborns; at 10 years old - 0.33 g. In children, the average proportion of the pituitary gland, which is almost absent in adults, is more developed. The level of growth hormone by 3-5 years reaches the norm of an adult.

Pancreas.From 4-5 years of age, there is a decrease in the number of islets of Langerhans (rapidly falling during the first year), their number is greater than in adults.

Epiphysis (upper brain appendage).It has a depressing effect on sexual development in immature and inhibits the function of the gonads in sexually mature, melatonin blocks the function of the thyroid gland. In an adult, the pineal gland, or pineal gland, weighs about 0.1–0.2 g. It develops up to 4 years, and then begins to atrophy, especially intensively after 7–8 years.

Sex glands. From birth to 6-7 years, activity is neutral.

1. Respiratory system

Includes lungs, airways - mouth, larynx, trachea, bronchi. At the end of preschool age, the formation of the respiratory organs ends. During the first 4 years of life, the larynx grows rapidly. The width of the lumen of the trachea increases by 2 times by 3-4 years. The ribs gradually assume the same position as in adults, the respiratory muscles and lung tissue develop. Nevertheless, it should be noted that despite the growth and branching of the lungs, the structure of the lung tissue has not yet reached full development, and the nasal passages, trachea and bronchi are relatively narrow, which makes it somewhat difficult for air to enter the lungs; the ribs are slightly inclined, the diaphragm is high, and therefore, the amplitude of respiratory movements is small. The child breathes superficially and much more often than an adult: in children 3-4 years old, the respiratory rate is 30 per minute, 5-6 years old - 25 per minute; in adults -16-18. Shallow breathing in children leads to relatively poor ventilation and some air stagnation, and the growing organism requires increased delivery of oxygen to the tissues. That's why it's so important physical exercise on fresh air activating gas exchange processes.

Minute breathing volume.This is the amount of air that a person inhales in 1 minute, it is determined by the product of the value of respiratory air by the number of respiratory movements in 1 minute. (in terms of 1 kg of mass). Due to the high respiratory rate in children, it is much higher.

Vital capacity of the lungs. In children 3-4 years old it is 400-500 cm 3 , at 5-6 years old - 800-900 cm 3 . With age, breathing becomes deeper and rarer, ventilation of the lungs increases. In children aged 3-7 years, due to the development of the shoulder girdle, the chest type of breathing begins to predominate, by the age of 7 it is already pronounced. At the age of 7-8, gender differences in the type of breathing begin: in boys, the abdominal type of breathing becomes predominant, in girls - chest.

1. The cardiovascular system

Activity of cardio-vascular system in preschool children, it is well adapted to the requirements of a growing organism and physical exertion, and the increased need for tissues in the blood supply is easily satisfied. The growth of the heart in length is faster than in width (the length doubles by 5-6 years, and the width - by 8-10 years). The mass of the heart increases from 70.8 g in a 3-4-year-old to 92.3 g in a 6-7-year-old (5 times more than in the neonatal period). In parallel with the growth of the heart, the size of the main vessels increases (it is wider than in adults), but their growth rate is slower. It also increases the strength of heart contractions, increases the efficiency of the heart. The shape of the heart and its location become almost the same as in adults.

Pulse rate. The pulse in children of all ages is more frequent than in adults (more intense metabolism), during sleep the pulse slows down. The pulse gradually decreases: by 5 years to 100 beats per 1 minute, by 7 - to 85–90 per 1 minute. (in an adult it is 70-74 beats per minute). Rises with agearterial (systolic) pressure:in the first year of life it is 80/55 - 85/60 mm Hg, and at the age of 3-7 years it is already within 80/50-110/70 mm Hg. The blood pressure indicator is closely related to the physical development of children: the highest normal performance it is noted in those periods when the most intensive increase in body size takes place, but the corresponding increase in the mass of the heart muscle has not yet occurred.

The nervous regulation of the heart is imperfect, so it is quickly excited, the rhythm of its contractions is easily disturbed, and the heart muscle gets tired quite quickly during exercise. However, when changing activities, the child's heart quickly calms down and restores its strength. Therefore, during classes with children, physical exercises need to be diversified: alternate outdoor games with small games. motor activity and often give the child a short rest.

The amount of blood in a child is relatively greater than in an adult, but the path that the blood makes through the vessels is shorter, and the speed of blood circulation is greater. In an adult, it is on average 7% of body weight, in newborns - from 10 to 20% of body weight, in children from 6 to 16 years old - 7%.

How younger child, the higher its metabolism, the greater the amount of blood per 1 kg of body weight. In a newborn, the blood makes a complete circuit (passes through the large and small circles of blood circulation) in 12 s, in 3-year-olds - in 15 s, at 14 years - in 18.5 s. The blood circulation time in adults is 22 s.

It has been proven that children after poliomyelitis, significantly limited in movement, differ from non-sick children in a higher frequency of heartbeats and respiratory movements. chest. In children deprived of the opportunity to perform normal dynamic work, inhibition of the work of the heart and breathing is observed, therefore, the frequency of breathing and heart contractions is the same as in younger children. This proves the dependence of the growth and development of children on the activity of skeletal muscles: in cases where, due to a disease (for example, inflammation of the motor nerves), movement is restricted, there is a delay in the development of not only skeletal muscles and the skeleton (for example, development of the chest), but also a sharp slowing down the growth and development of internal organs - the heart, lungs, etc.

1. Digestive system

At the age of 7, permanent teeth begin to erupt. Before the change, the roots of the milk teeth dissolve, after which the teeth fall out. Small molars and third large molars, or wisdom teeth, grow without milk predecessors. Up to 800 cm are separated per day in children 3 saliva, this amount increases with age.

In children, the mucous membrane of the esophagus is delicate, easily injured by roughage, and rich in blood vessels. The length of the esophagus in newborns is about 10 cm, at the age of 5 years - 16 cm, at 15 years - 19 cm.

The differentiation of the cells of the gastric glands in children is completed by the age of 7, but they reach full development only at the end of the puberty. The general acidity of gastric juice in children after birth is associated with the presence of lactic acid in its composition, and the relatively low content of hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice of children 4–6 years old leads to a decrease in its antimicrobial properties, which manifests itself in the tendency of children to gastrointestinal diseases. The function of hydrochloric acid synthesis develops in the period from 2.5 to 4 years. At the age of 4-7 years, the total acidity of gastric juice averages 35.4 units, in children aged 7-12 years it is 63 units.

The muscular layer of the intestine and its elastic fibers are less developed in children than in adults. In this regard, peristaltic movements in children are weaker. Growth and development of the pancreas continues up to 11 years. The liver in children is relatively larger than in adults. With age, bile secretion increases. In addition, to school age the quantitative and qualitative stabilization of the intestinal microflora is completed (according to the main indicators, it becomes close to the microflora of an adult).

1. genitourinary system

The genitourinary system combines the urinary and genital organs, they are closely related to each other in their development. Urinary organs - paired organs of the kidneys and urinary tract. Bladder in the first years of life - pear-shaped. By the age of 5, its capacity rises to 180 ml (80 ml in newborns). At 5-9 years old sizes kidneys increase due to the development of the cortical substance (up to the end of the puberty), the growth of the medulla stops only by the age of 12. Quantity sweat glands does not change, but their density is greater in childhood - 10 times per unit of skin surface. With age, their size and secretory function increase, and morphological development is basically completed by the age of 7.

1. Immune system

The organs of the immune system include: the central organs - the bone marrow (in which the lymphoid tissue is closely connected with the hematopoietic) and the thymus; peripheral organs are lymph nodes, spleen, accumulation of lymphoid tissue in the walls of hollow organs of the digestive, respiratory systems and urinary tract (tonsils, lymphoid plaques, single lymphoid nodules). These organs are also called lymphoid organs, or organs of immunogenesis.

In childhood (and adolescence), all glands reach their maximum development (mass, size, number of nodules, the presence of reproduction centers). After 4-5 yearsred marrowin the diaphysis of the bones is replaced by yellow bone marrow. thymus reaches its maximum size - at 5-6 years old, its weight is 30g. INpalatine tonsilobserved from 2 to 16 years the largest number lymphoid nodules, and at 4-7 years old reaches its largest sizetubal tonsil.

1. Age-related features of metabolism in the body of preschool children

In the human body, in its organs, tissues, cells, there is a continuous process of synthesis - the formation of complex substances from simpler ones. At the same time, there is a breakdown, oxidation of complex organic substances that make up the cells of the body. Metabolism - This is a set of changes that substances undergo from the moment they enter the digestive tract and until the formation of end products of decay excreted from the body.

Features of protein metabolism.The need for protein in a child's body is greater than that of an adult due to the intensive processes of growth and the formation of new cells and tissues. In children, a positive nitrogen balance is observed due to an increase in body weight with growth, when the amount of nitrogen introduced with protein foods exceeds the amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine (the growing body's need for protein is provided). The daily protein requirement for a child per 1 kg of body weight: from 1 to 3 years - 4-4.5 g, from 6 to 10 years - 2.5-3 g (in adults - 1.5-1.8 g) . This means that children from 1 to 4 years old should receive 30-50 g of protein per day, from 4 to 7 years old - about 70 g, from 7 years old - 75-80 g (depending on body weight). With these indicators, nitrogen is maximally retained in the body. It should be remembered that proteins are not stored in the body in reserve, so if you give them with food more than the body needs, then an increase in nitrogen retention and an increase in protein synthesis will not occur. Too low amount of protein in food causes the child to lose appetite, disturbs the acid-base balance, increases the excretion of nitrogen in the urine and feces. It is important to give the optimal amount of protein with a set of all the necessary amino acids, while the ratio of proteins, fats and carbohydrates in the child's food should be 1:1:3; under these conditions, nitrogen is retained in the body as much as possible.

Features of fat metabolism. In the body of a child from birth, about 50% of the need for energy is covered by fats. Without fat, it is impossible to develop general and specific immunity. The metabolism of fats in children is unstable, with a lack of carbohydrates in food or with their increased consumption, fat depots are quickly depleted. The absorption of fats in children is intensive - by 95–97%. For the full use of fat in the diet of children, carbohydrates must be present, with their lack in nutrition, incomplete oxidation of fats occurs, and acidic metabolic products accumulate in the blood. The body's need for fat per 1 kg of body weight is higher, the younger the child. With age, the absolute amount of fat necessary for the normal development of children increases: the daily requirement for fat is 32.7 g - at 1-3 years old, at 4-7 years old - 39.2 g.

Features of carbohydrate metabolism. In children, it occurs with great intensity, which is explained by the high level of metabolism in the child's body. Carbohydrates serve not only as the main source of energy, but also play an important plastic role in the formation of cell membranes, connective tissue substances in the child's body. Carbohydrates are also involved in the oxidation of acidic products of protein and fat metabolism, which contribute to maintaining the acid-base balance in the body. The formation of carbohydrates in children from proteins and fats is limited, since the intensive growth of the child's body requires significant amounts of plastic material - proteins and fats. The daily need for carbohydrates in children is high: per 1 kg of body weight, an average of 193 g of carbohydrates should be given with food - from 1 year to 3 years, from 4 to 7 years - 287 g (for an adult - 500 g). But carbohydrates are absorbed by the children's body better than adults (in infants - by 98–99%). In general, children are relatively more tolerant of high blood sugar than adults. In adults, glucose appears in the urine if it enters 2.5-3 g per 1 kg of body weight, and in children this occurs only when 8-12 g of glucose per 1 kg of body weight enters. Taking small amounts of carbohydrates with food can cause a two-fold increase in blood sugar in children, but after 1 hour the blood sugar content begins to decrease and after 2 hours it is completely normal.

Features of water exchange and exchange of mineral salts.In the body of a child, extracellular water predominates, which leads to a greater hydrolability of children, that is, the ability to quickly lose and quickly accumulate water. The need for water per 1 kg of body weight decreases with age, and its absolute amount increases: for 1 kg of body weight, water is required at 2 years old - 95 g, at 12–13 years old - 45 g. The daily water requirement for a child of 1 year old is 800 ml, at 4 years old - 950-1000 ml, at 5-6 years old - 1200 ml, at 7-10 years old - 1350 ml.

Features of mineral metabolism.They have an important impact on the development of the child. Bone growth, the timing of cartilage ossification, and the state of oxidative processes in the body are associated with calcium and phosphorus metabolism. Calcium affects the excitability of the nervous system, muscle contractility, blood clotting, protein and fat metabolism in the body. Phosphorus is needed not only for the growth of bone tissue, but also for the normal functioning of the nervous system, most glandular and other organs. Iron is part of the hemoglobin in the blood.

The need for calcium is reduced compared to the 1st year of life. The optimal ratio between the concentration of calcium and phosphorus salts for preschool children is 1:1, at the age of 8-10 years - 1:1.5, for adolescents and older students - 1:2. In this case, the development of the skeleton proceeds normally. Milk has an ideal ratio of calcium and phosphorus salts, so the inclusion of milk in the diet of children is mandatory. The need for iron in children is higher than in adults: 1-1.2 mg per 1 kg of body weight per day (in adults - 0.9 mg). Sodium children should receive 25-40 mg per day, potassium - 12-30 mg, chlorine - 12-15 mg.

Vitamins. Vitamin B1 (thiamine, aneurin)- daily requirement in children under 7 years old - 1 mg (in adults - 2-3 mg).Vitamin B2 (riboflavin): the daily requirement for it is 2-4 mg.Vitamin PP (nicotinamide): daily requirement - 15 mg (in adults - 15–25 mg). Vitamin C (ascorbic acid): the need for vitamin C per day is 50-100 mg.Vitamin A (retinol, axerophthol):daily requirement - 1 mg (in adults - 2 mg). Vitamin D (ergocalciferol): especially necessary for children to prevent one of the most common childhood diseases - rickets.

This means that the composition of food is very important for children, since the child's body needs a certain amount of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts, water and vitamins for normal development and growth. It is important to remember that a normal diet - necessary condition their physical and mental development. The neglect of food is just as harmful as the abuse of it.

References:

1. Age anatomy and physiology: UMK / comp. O.I. Simonov. - Gorno-Altaisk: RIO GAGU, 2008. - 91 p.
2. Age anatomy, physiology and hygiene: textbook. settlement / comp. Yu.A. Goncharova. - Voronezh: CPI VGU, 2008. - 92 p.
3. Popular medical encyclopedia / ed. B. V. Petrovsky. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1981.
4. Pseunok A. A. Age anatomy and physiology (lectures) / A. A. Pseunok. - Maykop: Publishing House of ASU, 2008. - 268 p.
5. Sapin, M. R. Anatomy and physiology of children and adolescents: textbook. settlement / M.R. Sapin, Z.G. Bryksin. - 6th ed., Sr. - M. : Academy, 2009. - 432 p.

Natalya Krutikova
Peculiarities physiological development preschool children

Age 3-7 years old applies to preschool, which is very important in child development, as it is characterized by qualitative and functional improvement of the brain, all organs and systems of the body.

Dynamics physical development of a child in preschool age is uneven. At the 4th and 5th years of life, the growth of the child slows down somewhat, the child grows by 4-6 cm per year, and during the subsequent period of life (V age 6-7 years) increase in growth reaches 8-10 cm per year. Rapid increase in growth children at this age is called"first draw period". It is associated with functional changes in endocrine system (increased function of the pituitary gland). Over the years, the proportions of the child's body have changed significantly. By the age of 7, his upper and lower limbs noticeably lengthen, and the chest circumference increases. If the growth of the child is behind the norm by 10%, it is necessary to pay attention to the following factors:

Is your child eating rationally?

Is the psychological climate in the family good?

If growth is delayed by 20%, an endocrinologist should be consulted.

Weight gain children by the age of 4, as well as growth increases, somewhat slow down and average 1.2-1.3 kg per year, and then again a more intensive increase in weight is noted body: for the 5th year of life, the child adds an average of 2 kg, for the 6th -2.5 kg, for the 7th about 3.5 kg. By 6-7 years of age, a child's body weight doubles compared to its weight in a one-year-old. age. If body weight exceeds the norm by 10%, taking into account the deviation, this is considered obese and requires correction by specialists. If body weight is below normal in this age, This indicates poor physical development and requires consultation with a pediatrician, rationalization of the diet.

At preschool children further development musculoskeletal system. Bone tissue becomes denser, body weight increases.

By the age of 5, her strength increases significantly and performance. The contractile muscle capacity increasing their strength. Development and differentiation of the central nervous system in preschoolers expressed in the improvement of motor functions, development coordination of movements, decreased muscle tone, develops a sense of balance. Much muscles develop, especially on the legs. More developed children can take off both legs from the ground, it’s good to jump from a running start, but they still don’t know how to use the wave of their hands correctly; able to stand on one leg, walk on heels and on toes. In that age especially gymnastics is easy. A child can be taught to ski and skate, on a two-wheeled bicycle. Majority children at this age dance with pleasure and carefully perform various movements to the music.

After 4 years, maximum visual acuity is reached, and the child physically ready for initial reading. The brain by the age of five in size and mass (90%) almost equal to the brain of an adult. Very intense there is a process development convolutions and furrows of the brain. However, it should be noted that the child is dominated by the right hemisphere, "responsible" for figurative perception, the emotional sphere, while the left "responsible" for speech, logical thinking, not yet formed. The child is in the grip of emotions, the main nervous processes: excitation predominates, inhibition is usually achieved with difficulty. This is manifested in the immediacy and sincerity of the child and in a pronounced imbalance and distractibility. Characterizing features of the development of children 4-5 years old, you should pay attention to the signs of psychomotor dysfunction in external manifestations child:

Hunchback, humiliation, depression, tension (head drawn into the shoulders, hands pressed to the body, fingers tense or clenched into fists);

Gait - on tiptoe, unsteady, sluggish, stumbling or like a mannequin;

Poses - frozen, constrained and monotonous;

Movements - aimless, unproductive at high intensity or psychomotor retardation;

Gesticulation and facial expressions - sluggish, poor, inexpressive, perhaps grimacing or facial mobility;

Speech is slurred, inexpressive, monotonous, stuttering is possible.

Be careful if the child has at least half of the described symptoms.

Play more games with your child, give him care, attention and love - he expects them from you, it's hard for him. Build your child's self-confidence and desire to actively interact with the outside world.

Children preschool age compared to early childhood age are more resistant to physical activity. They are good developed speech, the children of this age have certain skills in self-service, work, prepared for schooling. Their resistance to diseases is much higher.

The activity of the digestive tract children by the end of preschool» period reaches the level of an adult. By the age of 7, the child's molars erupt. From 6-7 years old, the change of all milk teeth begins. The volume of the stomach by the age of 5-7 reaches 400-500 ml, its muscular layer increases, the amount of digestive juices increases significantly and their enzymatic activity increases. At children of this age much less often there are disorders of the gastrointestinal tract. Acute childhood infections are common promotes wide communication of preschoolers with others. They flow more easily than young children, and rarely lead to serious consequences. Due to the ever-increasing sensitization of the body in preschool children allergic and infectious-allergic diseases, such as bronchial asthma, rheumatism, and others.

Children preschool age often suffer from acute respiratory diseases, which is associated with relatively low immunity in this aging and growing contacts with adults and peers. This is especially noticeable among children. visiting children's preschool institutions, in which it is necessary to distinguish groups of frequently and long-term ill (bdb) children. This group children requires great attention and assistance in the process of adaptation to new conditions, as well as in strengthening and hardening their body.